1. CS 2468: Assignment 2 (Due Week 9, Tuesday. Drop a hard copy in Mail Box 75 or hand in during the lecture) Use array representation (double a[]) to implement BinaryTree. Each cell in the array is a real number. You can just set the size of the array as 1000. Hint: (1) Please read the file BinaryTree.java on Week 5’s website, which uses BNode to implement BinaryTree. (2) You can also look the java code for heap. Trees1

2. Array-Based Representation of Binary Trees nodes are stored in an array Trees2 … let rank(node) be defined as follows: rank(root) = 1 if node is the left child of parent(node), rank(node) = 2*rank(parent(node)) if node is the right child of parent(node), rank(node) = 2*rank(parent(node))+1 1 23 6 7 45 1011 A HG FE D C B J

3. Array-Based Representations How many cells can be wasted with array based representation? Trees3

4. Linked Structure for Binary Trees A node is represented by an object storing – Element – Parent node – Left child node – Right child node Node objects implement the Position ADT Trees4 B D A CE   BADCE 

5. Linked Structure for Binary Trees A node is represented by an object storing – Element – Parent node – Left child node – Right child node Node objects implement the Position ADT Trees5 B D A C G   BADCE  F D   F G

6. Full Binary Tree A full binary tree: – All the leaves are at the bottom level – All nodes which are not at the bottom level have two children. – A full binary tree of height h has 2 h leaves and 2 h -1 internal nodes. Trees6 A full binary tree of height 2 This is not a full binary tree. 1 2 3 4 5 67

7. Properties of Proper Binary Trees Notation n number of nodes e number of external nodes i number of internal nodes h height Trees7 Properties for proper binary tree: e  i  1 n  2e  1 h  i e  2 h h  log 2 e No need to remember. 1 2 3 6 7 15 14

8. Depth(v): no. of ancestors of v Trees8 Make Money Fast! 1. MotivationsReferences2. Methods 2.1 Stock Fraud 2.2 Ponzi Scheme 1.1 Greed1.2 Avidity 2.3 Bank Robbery 0 1 2 1 2 222 1 Algorithm depth(T,v) If T.isRoot(v) then return 0; else return 1+depth(T, T.parent(v))

9. Height(T): the height of T is max depth of an external node Trees9 Algorithm height1(T) h=0; for each v  T.positions() do if T.isExternal(v) then h=max(h, depth(T, v)) return h T.positions() holds all nodes in T. See the method in LinkedBinaryTree.java. The max is 2. Make Money Fast! 1. Motivations 2. Methods 2.1 Stock Fraud 2.2 Ponzi Scheme 1.1 Greed1.2 Avidity 2.3 Bank Robbery 1 2 0 2 22 2 1

10. Height(T,v): Trees10 Algorithm height2(T,v) if T.isExternal(v) then return 0 else h=0 for each w  T.children(v) do h=max(h, height2(T, w)) return 1+h 1.If v is an external node, then height of v is 0. 2.Otherwise, the height of v is one +max height of a child of v.

11. Height(T,v): Trees11 Make Money Fast! 1. MotivationsReferences2. Methods 2.1 Stock Fraud 2.2 Ponzi Scheme 1.1 Greed1.2 Avidity 2.3 Bank Robbery 2 1 0 1 0 000 1 Algorithm height2(T,v) if T.isExternal(v) then return 0 else h=0 for each w  T.children(v) do h=max(h, height2(T, w)) return 1+h

12. Priority Queues12 Part-D1 Priority Queues

13. Priority Queues13 Priority Queue ADT A priority queue stores a collection of entries Each entry is a pair (key, value) Main methods of the Priority Queue ADT – insert(k, x) inserts an entry with key k and value x – removeMin() removes and returns the entry with smallest key Additional methods – min() returns, but does not remove, an entry with smallest key – size(), isEmpty() Applications: – Standby flyers – Auctions – Stock market

14. Priority Queues14 Entry ADT An entry in a priority queue is simply a key- value pair Priority queues store entries to allow for efficient insertion and removal based on keys Methods: – key(): returns the key for this entry – value(): returns the value associated with this entry As a Java interface: /** * Interface for a key-value * pair entry **/ public interface Entry { public Object key(); public Object value(); }

15. Priority Queues15 Comparator ADT A comparator encapsulates the action of comparing two objects according to a given total order relation A generic priority queue uses an auxiliary comparator The comparator is external to the keys being compared When the priority queue needs to compare two keys, it uses its comparator The primary method of the Comparator ADT: – compare(a, b): Returns an integer i such that i 0 if a > b; an error occurs if a and b cannot be compared.

16. Priority Queues16 Priority Queue Sorting We can use a priority queue to sort a set of comparable elements 1.Insert the elements one by one with a series of insert operations 2.Remove the elements in sorted order with a series of removeMin operations The running time of this sorting method depends on the priority queue implementation Algorithm PQ-Sort(S, C) Input sequence S, comparator C for the elements of S Output sequence S sorted in increasing order according to C P  priority queue with comparator C while  S.isEmpty () e  S.removeFirst () P.insert (e, 0) while  P.isEmpty() e  P.removeMin().key() S.insertLast(e)

17. Priority Queues17 Sequence-based Priority Queue Implementation with an unsorted list Performance: – insert takes O(1) time since we can insert the item at the beginning or end of the sequence – removeMin and min take O(n) time since we have to traverse the entire sequence to find the smallest key Implementation with a sorted list Performance: – insert takes O(n) time since we have to find the place where to insert the item – removeMin and min take O(1) time, since the smallest key is at the beginning 4523112345

18. Priority Queues18 Selection-Sort Selection-sort is the variation of PQ-sort where the priority queue is implemented with an unsorted list Running time of Selection-sort: 1.Inserting the elements into the priority queue with n insert operations takes O(n) time 2.Removing the elements in sorted order from the priority queue with n removeMin operations takes time proportional to 1  2  …  n-1 Selection-sort runs in O(n 2 ) time

19. Priority Queues19 Selection-Sort Example Sequence SPriority Queue P Input:(7,4,8,2,5,3,9)() Phase 1 (a)(4,8,2,5,3,9)(7) (b)(8,2,5,3,9)(7,4)......... (g)()(7,4,8,2,5,3,9) Phase 2 (a)(2)(7,4,8,5,3,9) (b)(2,3)(7,4,8,5,9) (c)(2,3,4)(7,8,5,9) (d)(2,3,4,5)(7,8,9) (e)(2,3,4,5,7)(8,9) (f)(2,3,4,5,7,8)(9) (g)(2,3,4,5,7,8,9)() Running time: 1+2+3+…n- 1=O(n 2 ). No advantage is shown by using unsorted list.

20. Priority Queues20 Complete Binary Trees 156243 A binary tree of height 3 has the first p leaves at the bottom for p=1, 2, …, 8=2 3. A complete binary tree is a binary tree in which every level, except possibly the last, is completely filled, and all nodes are as far left as possible.

21. Priority Queues21 Complete Binary Trees 15678243 A binary tree of height 3 has the first p leaves at the bottom for p=1, 2, …, 8=2 3. Once the number of nodes in the complete binary tree is fixed, the tree is fixed. For example, a complete binary tree of 15 node is shown in the slide. A CBT of 14 nodes is the one without node 8. A CBT of 13 node is the one without nodes 7 and 8.

22. Priority Queues22 Heaps A heap is a binary tree storing keys at its nodes and satisfying the following properties: – Heap-Order: for every node v other than the root, key(v)  key(parent(v)) – Complete Binary Tree: let h be the height of the heap for i  0, …, h  1, there are 2 i nodes of depth i at depth h  1, the internal nodes are to the left of the external nodes 2 65 79 The last node of a heap is the rightmost node of depth h Root has the smallest key last node A full binary without the last few nodes at the bottom on the right.

23. Priority Queues23 Height of a Heap Theorem: A heap storing n keys has height O(log n) Proof: (we apply the complete binary tree property) – Let h be the height of a heap storing n keys – Since there are 2 i keys at depth i  0, …, h  1 and at least one key at depth h, we have n  1  2  4  …  2 h  1  1=2 h. – Thus, n  2 h, i.e., h  log n 1 2 2h12h1 1 keys 0 1 h1h1 h depth

24. Priority Queues24 Heaps and Priority Queues We can use a heap to implement a priority queue We store a (key, element) item at each internal node We keep track of the position of the last node For simplicity, we show only the keys in the pictures (2, Sue) (6, Mark)(5, Pat) (9, Jeff)(7, Anna)

25. Priority Queues25 Insertion into a Heap Method insertItem of the priority queue ADT corresponds to the insertion of a key k to the heap The insertion algorithm consists of three steps – Create the node z (the new last node). Store k at z – Put z as the last node in the complete binary tree. – Restore the heap-order property, i.e., upheap (discussed next) 2 65 79 insertion node 2 65 79 1 z z

26. Priority Queues26 Upheap After the insertion of a new key k, the heap-order property may be violated Algorithm upheap restores the heap-order property by swapping k along an upward path from the insertion node Upheap terminates when the key k reaches the root or a node whose parent has a key smaller than or equal to k Since a heap has height O(log n), upheap runs in O(log n) time 2 1 5 79 6 z 1 2 5 79 6 z

27. Priority Queues27 An example of upheap 1 3 2 54 6 7 91516172101411 2 7 3 2 Different entries may have the same key. Thus, a key may appear more than once.

28. Priority Queues28 Removal from a Heap Method removeMin of the priority queue ADT corresponds to the removal of the root key from the heap The removal algorithm consists of three steps – Replace the root key with the key of the last node w – Remove w – Restore the heap-order property.e., downheap(discussed next) 2 65 79 last node w 7 65 9 w new last node

29. Priority Queues29 Downheap After replacing the root key with the key k of the last node, the heap- order property may be violated Algorithm downheap restores the heap-order property by swapping key k along a downward path (always use the child with smaller key) from the root Downheap terminates when key k reaches a leaf or a node whose children have keys greater than or equal to k Since a heap has height O(log n), downheap runs in O(log n) time 7 65 9 5 6 7 9

30. Priority Queues30 An example of downheap 17 3 2 54 6 7 91516101411 17 2 4 9

31. Priority Queues31 Priority Queue ADT using a heap A priority queue stores a collection of entries Each entry is a pair (key, value) Main methods of the Priority Queue ADT – insert(k, x) inserts an entry with key k and value x O(log n) – removeMin() removes and returns the entry with smallest key O(log n) Additional methods – min() returns, but does not remove, an entry with smallest key O(1) – size(), isEmpty() O(1) Running time of Size(): when constructing the heap, we keep the size in a variable. When inserting or removing a node, we update the value of the variable in O(1) time. isEmpty(): takes O(1) time using size(). (if size==0 then …)

32. Priority Queues32 Heap-Sort Consider a priority queue with n items implemented by means of a heap – the space used is O(n) – methods insert and removeMin take O(log n) time – methods size, isEmpty, and min take time O(1) time Using a heap-based priority queue, we can sort a sequence of n elements in O(n log n) time The resulting algorithm is called heap-sort Heap-sort is much faster than quadratic sorting algorithms, such as insertion-sort and selection-sort

33. Priority Queues33 Vector-based Heap Implementation We can represent a heap with n keys by means of an array of length n  1 For the node at rank i – the left child is at rank 2i – the right child is at rank 2i  1 Links between nodes are not explicitly stored The cell of at rank 0 is not used Operation insert corresponds to inserting at rank n  1 Operation removeMin corresponds to removing at rank n Yields in-place heap-sort The parent of node at rank i is  i/2  2 65 79 25697 123450

34. Priority Queues34 Merging Two Heaps We are given two two heaps and a key k We create a new heap with the root node storing k and with the two heaps as subtrees We perform downheap to restore the heap- order property 7 3 58 2 64 3 58 2 64 2 3 58 4 6 7

35. Priority Queues35 We can construct a heap storing n given keys in using a bottom-up construction with log n phases In phase i, pairs of heaps with 2 i  1 keys are merged into heaps with 2 i  1  1 keys Bottom-up Heap Construction (§2.4.3) 2 i  1 2i112i11

36. Priority Queues36 Example 1516 12476 2023 25 1516 5 124 11 76 27 2023

37. Priority Queues37 Example (contd.) 25 1516 5 124 11 96 27 2023 15 25 16 4 12 5 6 9 11 20 27 23

38. Priority Queues38 Example (contd.) 7 15 2516 4 125 8 6 911 20 2723 4 15 2516 5 12 7 6 8 911 20 2723

39. Priority Queues39 Example (end) 4 15 2516 5 127 10 6 8 911 20 2723 5 15 2516 7 12 10 4 6 8 911 20 2723

40. Priority Queues40 Analysis We visualize the worst-case time of a downheap with a proxy path that goes first right and then repeatedly goes left until the bottom of the heap (this path may differ from the actual downheap path) Since each node is traversed by at most two proxy paths, the total number of nodes of the proxy paths is O(n) Thus, bottom-up heap construction runs in O(n) time Bottom-up heap construction is faster than n successive insertions and speeds up the first phase of heap-sort