2.  The first induced nuclear reaction was accomplished by none other than Australian physicist Ernest Rutherford, the same guy who bombarded atoms with alpha particles and discovered the nuclear structure of the atom.  From his experience with alpha emitters, Rutherford thought that alpha particles might just be energetic enough to breach the nuclear boundary. Topic 7.3 Extended A – Nuclear Reactions  In fact, he did just that in the following nuclear reaction: 14 N + 4 He  17 O + 1 H 7 2 8 1 nitrogen alpha particle oxygen proton  There is an intermediate step in this reaction: 14 N + 4 He  ( 18 F*)  17 O + 1 H 7 2 9 8 1 nitrogen alpha particle fluorine oxygen proton FYI: In the standard notation, the asterisk (*) represents an excited nucleus. This is comparable to an excited electron in that a nucleon is bumped up to a higher shell in the nucleus (as per Schrödinger). FYI: The intermediate excited fluorine nucleus rids itself of excess energy by ejecting a proton.

3.  Alchemy, the search for the means of changing metal into gold, has finally come to be one of man's accomplishments.  The following reaction turns mercury into gold! Topic 7.3 Extended A – Nuclear Reactions 200 Hg + 1 H  197 Au + 4 He 80 1 79 2 mercury proton gold  -particle  Notice that the mercury is bombarded by a proton.  Since protons are not a natural byproduct of radioactive decay, a particle accelerator is used to speed up protons (hydrogen nuclei) and collide them with the mercury nuclei with sufficient energy to penetrate the nucleus. A Word of Advice: Don't go home asking mom for a particle accelerator so you can make your own bootleg gold. Accelerators cost billions of dollars. Furthermore, it will cost you millions in electric bills just to run the machine to make an ounce of the stuff!  The next slide shows a particle accelerator in the US:

4. Fermilab National Accelerator Laboratory

6.  A shorthand notation for nuclear reactions of this sort- ELEMENT + particle  ELEMENT + particle  is Topic 7.3 Extended A – Nuclear Reactions A + a  B + b A + a  b + B A(a, b)B Element-Particle- Particle-Element Notation  Thus the preceding two reactions look like this: 14 N( ,p) 17 O 200 Hg(p,  ) 197 Au FYI: There are no stable nuclei beyond Z = 92 (uranium). However, elements all the way up to Z = 109 have been made in particle colliders such as Fermilab. These new nuclei are unstable, though. FYI: Some nuclear physicists believe that if the next magic number (beyond 126) is reached, a new class of superheavy stable element may be created with over 300 nucleons.

7. C ONSERVATION OF M ASS- E NERGY AND THE Q V ALUE Topic 7.3 Extended A – Nuclear Reactions  In light of Einstein's special theory of relativity (E = m 0 c 2 ) we can no longer just speak of "conservation of mass" or "conservation of energy."  Instead we speak of conservation of mass-energy.  The total energy of each of the constituent particles of a nuclear reaction is given by E = K + m 0 c 2 Relativistic Energy of a Moving Particle  We can then express the conservation of mass-energy as...  E i =  E f Conservation of Mass-Energy

8. C ONSERVATION OF M ASS- E NERGY AND THE Q V ALUE Topic 7.3 Extended A – Nuclear Reactions  In the reaction A + a  B + b we can invoke the conservation of mass-energy like this: K A + m A c 2 + K a + m a c 2 = K B + m B c 2 + K b + m b c 2 conservation of mass-energy (K B + K b ) - (K A + K a ) = (m A + m a )c 2 - (m B + m b )c 2 why?  Now we define the Q-value of the reaction: Q =  K = (K B + K b ) - (K A + K a )  Or... Q = (m A + m a )c 2 - (m B + m b )c 2  This last can be simplified somewhat: Q = (m A + m a - m B - m b )c 2 =  mc 2 Q-Value of a Nuclear Reaction FYI: If Q < 0 the reaction ABSORBS ENERGY. It is ENDOERGIC. FYI: If Q > 0 the reaction RELEASES ENERGY. It is EXOERGIC. FYI: Endoergic = endothermic. Exoergic = exothermic. FYI: Radioactive decay reactions are ALWAYS exoergic.

9. C ONSERVATION OF M ASS- E NERGY AND THE Q V ALUE Topic 7.3 Extended A – Nuclear Reactions What is the Q-value for the reaction 14 N + 4 He  17 O + 1 H 7 2 8 1 nitrogen alpha particle oxygen proton 14.003074 u 4.002603 u 16.999133 u 1.007825 u Q = (m A + m a - m B - m b )c 2 Q = (14.00307 + 4.002603 - 16.999133 - 1.007825)uc 2 A aB b Q = -0.001285uc 2 Endoergic or exoergic?  Since u = 1.6606  10 -27 kg, and c = 3  10 8 m/s, Q = -1.92  10 -13 J FYI: Lifting a 2-kg textbook up from the floor to the desktop takes about U = mgy = 2(10)(1.5) = 30 J (about 1.6  10 14 times Q!).  Don't forget, we can convert directly to MeV: Q = -0.001285uc 2 931.5 MeV 1 uc 2 Q = -1.197 MeV

10. T HRESHOLD E NERGY Topic 7.3 Extended A – Nuclear Reactions  The minimum kinetic energy K min that an incident particle needs in order to initiate an endoergic reaction in a stationary target is called the threshold energy and is given by K min = 1 + |Q| maMAmaMA Threshold Energy for an Endoergic Reaction  Note that K min > |Q|. FYI: The reason K min = |Q| is not sufficient is because of conservation of momentum. Since the initial momentum of the particle is NOT zero and the initial momentum of the target IS zero, the collision must result in SOME velocity for the target. Thus some of the kinetic is energy "needed" to conserve momentum. What is the threshold energy for the reaction 14 N( ,p) 17 O?  The notation A(a, b)B tells us what A, a, B, and b are so that Q = (m A + m a - m B - m b )c 2 becomes Q = (14.003074 + 4.002603 - 16.999133 - 1.007825)uc 2 Q = (-0.001281uc 2 )(931.5 MeV/uc 2 ) = -1.193 MeV K min = 1 + | -1.193 MeV | 4.002603 14.003074 K min = 1.534 MeV FYI: K min is significantly bigger than |Q|.

11. R EACTION C ROSS S ECTIONS Topic 7.3 Extended A – Nuclear Reactions  The minimum kinetic energy K min can be calculated to produce a particular reaction.  If the kinetic energy of the incident particle exceeds K min for more than one possible reaction the result can be any of the possible reactions - determined by the probabilities described by Schrödinger's equation.  Supercomputers can sometimes be used to calculate the probabilities of all the possible reactions, or they can be determined experimentally.  The reaction cross section is a measure of the probability that a particular reaction will occur at a particular incident kinetic energy. Neutron K (eV) Reaction Cross Section 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 FYI: The peaks where the probabilities of reactions are greatest are called resonances. resonances FYI: The resonances occur when the nucleus attains different energy levels (we talked about this - it is analogous to electron energy levels). Then the excited nucleus undergoes one of its possible decays. FYI: We will return to cross sections when we learn about the search for elementary particles...