1. Acute laryngitis—adults
Acute laryngitis is more common in winter months and is usually caused by acute coryza (common cold) or influenza. It is predisposed to by 1 vocal over-use, 2 smoking or 3 drinking of spirits..

2. CLINICAL FEATURES
Clinical features include aphonia (the voice reduced to a whisper) or dysphonia (a painful croak) and pain around the larynx, especially on coughing.
Examination by indirect laryngoscopy shows the larynx to be red and dry, with stringy mucus between the cord.
TREATMENT
1 Total voice rest.
2 Inhalations with steam.
3 No smoking.
4 Antibiotics are rarely necessary.
5 steroid & antihistamine ?

3. Acute laryngitis—children
As a result of acute upper respiratory infection, laryngitis may develop. This may lead to airway obstruction.
CLINICAL FEATURES
1 Unwell.
2 Harsh cough.
3 Hoarse voice or aphonia.
This early stage will often respond to paracetamol and a steamy environment.

4. If oedema develops within the limited space of the subglottis, stridor may supervene.This combination of acute laryngitis and stridor is known as Croup
If there is significant or worsening airway obstruction, the child should be admitted to hospital, preferably where paediatric intensive care facilities are available

5. Acute epiglottitis
acute epiglottitis is a localized infection of the supraglottic larynx usually by Haemophilus influenzae. It causes severe swelling of the epiglottis, which obstructs the laryngeal inlet. In children it constitutes the most urgent emergency—the child may progress from being perfectly well to being dead within the space of a few hours on account of airway obstruction..

6. CLINICAL FEATURES

7. The child will become unwell, with increasing dysphagia and a quack-like cough. Stridor will develop rapidly and the child will prefer to sit up, leaning forward to ease his airway. If the diagnosis is suspected and even though symptoms may be mild, the child should be admitted at once to hospital. At one time tracheostomy was the treatment of choice but most cases are now managed by endotracheal intubation and therapy with AB, which will result in rapid resolution. In adults the pain is severe and is worsened on swallowing. It is slower to develop and to resolve than in children. Respiratory obstruction is less likely to occur, but may do so with a fatal result.

8. Examination of the larynx by a mirror or tongue plate should be avoided because this may precipitate laryngeal edema & spasm.

9. Treatment:
1_Hospitalization & monitoring of vital signs. Acute epiglottitis is an emergency, it is more severe & risky than laryngotracheobronchitis (croup).
2_Secure the airway: intubation or tracheostomy is Usually needed in larger percentage of cases than croup (in which intubation & tracheostomy are rarely required)
3_Humidification of air.
4_Antibiotics: amoxiclav or cefotaxime.
5_Steroids: controversial.

10. Laryngotracheobronchitis
This condition occurs in infants and toddlers and is a generalized respiratory infection, probably viral in origin(allergy,bacteria ). In addition to laryngeal oedema, there is the production of thick tenacious secretions, which block the trachea and small airways. It is of slower onset than acute epiglottitis

11. Clinical features: 1_Usually gradual onset.
2_There is a history of upper respiratory tract infection before few days.
3_Then the patient develops croupy cough (cough of crowing quality or bark of a seal).
4_Hoarseness
5_pyrexia
6_Stridor: may be inspiratory, expiratory or both.
7_Dyspnea & cyanosis in severe cases.

12. 1. Hospitalization & regular monitoring of vital signs.
Treatment:
1. Hospitalization & regular monitoring of vital signs.
2. Rest & reassurance.
3. Humidification of inspired air: the child is isolated in a room or tent with moist air.
4. O2 may have to be given.
5. Fluids I. V. or by mouth to prevent dehydration.
6. Systemic antibiotics: controversial because it is viral cause.
7. Steroids: also controversial.
8. Rarely intubation or tracheostomy required if there is severe Dyspnea & stridor with no benefit of conservative measures.

13. Laryngeal diphtheria
Laryngeal diphtheria is rarely seen now in the UK.The child is ill and usually
presents the clinical picture of faucial diphtheria. Stridor suggests the spread of membrane to the larynx and trachea.
TREATMENT
1 Antitoxin.
2 General medical treatment for diphtheria.
3 Tracheostomy (q.v) may be indicated.

15. Complications of diphtheria:
1_Respiratory obstruction.
2_Neurological: the diphtheria toxin cause peripheral neuropathy resulting in paralysis of soft palate (regurgitation of fluid & hyper nasal speech), paralysis of muscles of eye accommodation. Also paralysis of respiratory muscles & limb muscles.
3. Cardiac: the toxin also may cause cardiac arrest. Once the toxin fixed to the tissues, the antitoxin would be of no value, that's why it should be given early if there is any suspicion of diphtheria.

16. E) Acute perichondritis:
Inflammation of the laryngeal cartilage perichondrium. Aetiology:
1_Primary: due to blood born infection.
2_Secondary: due to superficial infection in the larynx spreading to the deeper tissues.
3_Radiotherapy: to the neck is the commonest cause.
 4_Autoimmunity: as in relapsing perichondritis which may be associated with SLE or rheumatoid arthritis.

17. Clinical features: 1.Usually develops slowly.
2. There is dull pain over the entire laryngeal skeleton .
3. Fever & malaise.
4. There may be respiratory obstruction & stridor in severe cases.
5. Sometimes the cartilage is exposed with foul smell from tissue necrosis.

18. Treatment: 1_Broad spectrum Antibiotics.
2_Steroid in high dose for 1 week.
3_Tracheostomy or intubation in severe airway obstruction.
4_Total laryngectomy in resistant cases.

19. Chronic laryngitis
More common in males than females, chronic laryngitis is aggravated by: 1 habitual shouting; 2 faulty voice production coupled with excessive vocal use. Seen in teachers, actors, singers; 3 smoking; 4 spirit drinking; 5 chronic upper airway infection, such as sinusitis. 6 Reflux esophagitis The voice is hoarse and fatigues easily.There may be discomfort and a tendency to clear the throat constantly. Examination shows the cords to be thickened and pink and the surrounding mucosa is often red and dry.

21. TREATMENT
Treatment is often ineffective. The voice should be rested as far as possible, any upper airway sepsis dealt with and steam inhalations given to humidify the larynx.Voice therapy may be helpful in cases of faulty voice production.

22. stenosis of the larynx
A) Acquired stenosis of the larynx Injury to the larynx (blunt trauma, intubation, laryngeal endoscopy & surgical intervention) leading to acquired stenosis can involve the supraglottis, glottis, subglottis or any combination of these structures. GERD is also a major cause of laryngeal stenosis.
Clinical features & evaluation include the following;
1. Careful history taking.
2. Thorough physical examination of the head & neck.
3. Radiological examination includes x-ray films of the chest & lateral neck. CT scan has been found to be of great value in the evaluation of laryngeal trauma.
4. Endoscopy.

23. Treatment
There are many procedures for this problem including dilation, steroid injection, endolaryngeal laser microsurgery & laryngotracheoplasty

24. B) Congenital stenosis of the larynx
Less than Acquired stenosis, 50% of cases need tracheostomy but most of them will be decannulated within 2-5year without required any surgical intervention.
Pathology: either soft type(soft tissue thickening like mucosa or submucosa) or hard type (cartilage thickening mostly cricoid cartilage)
Clinical features & evaluation& Treatment: same as Acquired stenosis but most of infant & young children not required any surgical intervention & will improve with larynx growth.

25. Tracheotomy is the term used to describe the surgical opening of the trachea. Tracheostomy is used to describe the creation of a stoma at the skin surface which leads into the trachea.

26. Indications • 1)Airway obstruction at or above the level of the larynx • 2)Inability to clear secretions • 3)Need for prolonged mechanical ventilation • 4)Pulmonaryinsufficiency that benefits from reduction of upper airway resistance and dead space • 5)Severe obstructive sleep apnea

27. Signs of Airway Obstruction
It is best to intervene early rather than wait for late signs of upper airway obstruction.
• Early signs
A. Retractions (suprasternal, supraclavicular, intercostal)
B. Inspiratory stridor
• Later signs
A. Agitation and/or altered consciousness
B. Rising pulse and respiratory rate, paradoxical pulse
• Danger signs
A. Pallor or cyanosis late danger signs
B. Fatigue and exhaustion

28. Postoperative Care • Secure tube tightly, preferably with direct sutures, to prevent accidental dislodgement. • Chest x-ray films (AP and lateral) determine the length and position of the tracheotomy tube and detect pneumomediastinum or pneumothorax. • Do not change external tube for 3 to 4 days, to prevent reentry into false passage. • Frequent suctioning and removal and cleaning of inner cannula.

29. Complications • Immediate: bleeding, pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum, subcutaneous emphysema, dislodged or obstructed tube, false passage with tube outside trachea, postobstructive pulmonary edema, apnea due to loss of hypoxic drive, tube too short or inappropriate shape (especially in morbidly obese patients) • Delayed: granulation tissue, stomal infection, subglottic or tracheal stenosis, tracheomalacia, tracheoesophageal fistula,, tracheoinnominate fistula, persisting tracheocutaneous fistula after decannulation

30. Cricothyroidotomy incision
Anterior border of sternocleidomastoid muscule
Cricothyroidotomy incision
Tracheostomy incision
Clavicle
Sternal notch
London Head & Neck Dissection Course 2007