1. Metabolism and Enzymes
Higher Human Biology
Metabolism and Enzymes

2. Learning Intention:
To learn about the Metabolic pathways
Success Criteria:
By the end of the lesson I should be able to
Explain the difference between anabolic and catabolic pathways.
Describe how metabolic pathways are controlled.

3. Cell metabolism
A cell's daily operations are accomplished through the biochemical reactions that take place within the cell.
Reactions are turned on and off or sped up and slowed down according to the cell's immediate needs and overall functions.
At any given time, the numerous pathways involved in building up and breaking down cellular components must be monitored and balanced in a coordinated fashion.
To achieve this goal, cells organize reactions into various enzyme-powered pathways.

4. Cell Metabolism
Is the collective term for all the biochemical reactions that occur in a living cell
Many of these biochemical reactions are steps in a complex network of connected and integrated pathways that are catalysed by enzymes

5. Two types of metabolic pathways
Anabolic pathways require energy and are involved in the biosynthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules
Catabolic pathways release energy and involve the breakdown of molecules

6. Control of metabolic processes
Metabolic processes can have reversible , irreversible steps and alternative pathways which keep the process under strict control
An example of an irreversible step- the diffusion of glucose into the cell which is converted by an enzyme into intermediate 1. This keeps the concentration of glucose in the cell low allowing for further diffusion of glucose into the cell
glucose
Enzyme B
Enzyme A
Intermediate 1
Intermediate 2
Enzyme C
Intermediate 3
Many enzyme controlled steps
pyruvate
Glycogen in animals
Starch in plants

7. Reversible step- the conversion of intermediate 1 into intermediate 2 is reversible as this allows any excess to be used in an alternative pathway eg conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage

8. Alternative routes bypass steps in the pathway
Eg steps controlled by enzyme A,B and C can be bypassed when glucose is converted into sorbitol which then returns to glycolysis later in the pathway.

9. Metabolic pathways - Summary
There are 2 types of metabolic pathways-Anabolic and catabolic
the pathways - can have reversible and irreversible steps and alternative routes.

10. Learning Intention:
To learn about the control of metabolic pathways
Success Criteria:
By the end of the lesson I should be able to
State that enzymes lower the activation energy required for a chemical reaction to start.
Explain the induced fit model in relation to enzyme action.
Explain the effect of substrate concentration on rate of the reaction.
Explain the effect of product concentration on the rate of reaction.
State the three types of enzyme inhibition.
Explain the mechanisms of competitive, non-competitive and feedback (end product) inhibition.

11. Metabolic reactions are controlled by the presence or absence of particular enzymes in metabolic pathways
If the appropriate enzyme is present the reaction continues
If the appropriate enzyme is absent the pathway stops

12. Enzyme action can be regulated at the
level of gene expression (Control of the number of enzyme molecules)
at a level of enzyme action (Change of enzyme shape)

13. Control by gene expression

14. Some proteins are only required at certain times
Some proteins are only required at certain times. In order to prevent resources being wasted, genes can be switched on and off.

15. Effect of B-galactosidase on lactose
Jacob Monad Hypothesis- Switching genes on and off
Effect of B-galactosidase on lactose
Lactose is the sugar found in milk.
It is made from a molecule of glucose joined to a molecule of galactose.

16. The enzyme B-galactosidase can be used to breakdown lactose into its component molecules.
glucose
galactose

17. E.Coli has a gene which codes for the production of B-galactosidase.
BUT!! It only produces the enzyme when lactose is present.
This is called enzyme induction.

18. 1 or more structural genes with a neighbouring operator gene.
Operon =
1 or more structural genes with a neighbouring operator gene.
operon
Operator gene
structural gene
The operator gene controls the switching on and off of the structural gene.

19. The operator is affected by a repressor molecule.
regulator gene
Repressor molecule
The repressor is produced under control of the regulator gene.

20. In the absence of lactose, the repressor molecule is produced.
This binds to the operator gene and prevents it from turning on the structural gene.

21. If lactose is present…..
This binds to the operator gene and prevents it from turning on the structural gene.

22. Control by level of enzyme action

23. Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts which are essential to the maintenance of life.
They form an enzyme-substrate complex that accelerates the rate of reaction.

24. Enzyme Properties Enzymes are globular proteins
They possess a small region called the active site where the reaction occurs
Enzymes are specific in the reaction that they catalyse
Enzymes are only required in small amounts and remain unchanged at the end of the reaction

25. Induced Fit Enzyme activity conforms to the induced fit model
The substrate molecule induces a slight change in the shape of the active site to allow the substrate molecule to fit perfectly and change to its working conformation. The change in shape of the active site facilitates the reaction.

26. Enzyme activation energy
The energy required to break chemical bonds in the reacting chemicals is called the activation energy
Enzymes lower the activation energy

28. FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY
Temperature pH
substrate concentration
enzyme concentration
inhibitors

29. INCREASING SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
Increasing substrate conc increases rate of reaction, to a point, as more active sites become occupied
Beyond that point, the conc of enzyme becomes limiting

31. INCREASING SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
To increase rate of reaction beyond that point, increase enzyme conc

32. INCREASING ENZYME CONCENTRATION
Increasing enzyme conc increases rate of reaction, until enzyme conc is large
Substrate conc is now the limiting factor

34. INCREASING ENZYME CONCENTRATION
More substrate must be added to increase reaction rate

35. Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
A metabolic pathway usually involves a group of enzymes
Some enzymes are associated with other enzymes involved in a particular pathway to form multienzyme complexes
In reality, DNA polymerase isn’t just a single enzyme. Rather, it is a massive multi-enzyme complex possessed of multiple catalytic activities
DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase form part of multi enzyme complexes

36. Control of a Pathway using its enzymes
Metabolic pathways can be controlled by the switching on or off of the first enzyme in the pathway
If the first enzyme is switched off the rest of the pathway stops due to the lack of intermediates
The first enzyme can be inhibited by high levels of the final product from the pathway

37. End-Product Inhibition
Used in the control of metabolic pathways
The end-product of the pathway inhibits the activity of the first enzyme in the pathway
This is energetically efficient as it avoids the excessive production of the intermediates of a pathway

38. Competitive and Non-competitive Inhibition
Competitive – A molecule with similar molecular shape to the substrate competes for the active site and reduces the concentration of available enzyme

39. Non-competitive – A molecule binds to the enzyme at an area other than the active site; it changes the conformation of the enzyme and its active site. Thus, catalytic efficiency is reduced.

40. Control of metabolic pathways - Summary
Metabolic pathways are controlled by the presence or absence of particular enzymes in the metabolic pathway and through the regulation of the rate of reaction of key enzymes within the pathway.
Regulation can be controlled by intra- and extracellular signal molecules.
Induced fit and the role of the active site of enzymes including shape and substrate affinity.
How enzymes affect activation energy.
The effects of substrate and end product concentration on the direction and rate of enzyme reactions.
Enzymes often act in groups or as multi-enzyme complexes.
Control of metabolic pathways through competitive, non-competitive and feedback inhibition