1. Russia Political and Economic Change

2. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power  Historically based in strong autocratic rule under tsars  20 th Century – based in Marxist- Leninist ideology of democratic centralism, rule of the few to benefit the many  Stalinism pushed it to totalitarianism, complete invasive rule by dictators

3. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power  Nikita Khrushchev and Mikhail Gorbachev loosened Communist rule, leading to the collapse of the U.S.S.R.  Constitution of 1993 – reformed Russia as a presidential republic Approved by referendum of Russian voters to build legitimacyApproved by referendum of Russian voters to build legitimacy Attempted coups and conflict between president and Duma suggested weaknessAttempted coups and conflict between president and Duma suggested weakness Elections in 2000 and 2004 went smoothly, suggesting successElections in 2000 and 2004 went smoothly, suggesting success

4. Historical Influences on Political Traditions  Common Themes of Russian History: Absolute, Centralized Rule – Geography was subject to easy invasion and conquest, leading to unchallenged, powerful leadershipAbsolute, Centralized Rule – Geography was subject to easy invasion and conquest, leading to unchallenged, powerful leadership Extensive Cultural Diversity – numerous invasions plus expansion of borders created a diverse populationExtensive Cultural Diversity – numerous invasions plus expansion of borders created a diverse population

5. Historical Influences on Political Traditions  Common Themes of Russian History: Slavophile vs. Westernizer – pride in slavic customs and resistance to outside influence conflicts with modernizing influences from the westSlavophile vs. Westernizer – pride in slavic customs and resistance to outside influence conflicts with modernizing influences from the west  Tsar Peter the Great in late 17 th to early 18 th century modeled Russian Empire on West Revolutions of the 20 th CenturyRevolutions of the 20 th Century  Seize of power by Bolsheviks in 1917, keeping authoritarian style of rule, but changed social class system  Dissolution of U.S.S.R. in 1991

6. Political Culture  Influences GeographyGeography  Largest territory in the world  Includes many nationalities and ethnicities, borders many others  One of the coldest in the world  Few warm water ports, often motivated to conquer countries that blocked access to the sea  Many natural resources were locked in Siberia, but are now accessible due to technological improvement

10. Political Culture  Influences Eastern OrthodoxyEastern Orthodoxy  Russia developed economic ties with Constantinople, not the West, in early centuries  Not a part of Western Europe’s Reformation and Enlightenment traditions  Instead, valued statism, a strong state to protect them from geographic vulnerabilities

11. Political Culture  Influences Equality of ResultEquality of Result  Russians tend to resent the wealthy Skepticism About PowerSkepticism About Power  Despite statism, Russians have little faith in public officials’ competence Exception: Putin, 70-80% approval rating (2004); 65% (2012)Exception: Putin, 70-80% approval rating (2004); 65% (2012) Importance of NationalityImportance of Nationality  Lots of stereotypes about Russians, Baltic people, Muslim-Turks, Jews

12. Political and Economic Change  Attempts at liberalization have historically resulted in disaster Alexander II freed Russian serfs, created local assemblies, gets assassinated by revolutionaries (1881)Alexander II freed Russian serfs, created local assemblies, gets assassinated by revolutionaries (1881) 19 th century tsars who used capitalist means to industrialize failed19 th century tsars who used capitalist means to industrialize failed Gorbachev’s glasnost and perestroika ended in widespread criticism of government, a military coup, and the collapse of the U.S.S.R.Gorbachev’s glasnost and perestroika ended in widespread criticism of government, a military coup, and the collapse of the U.S.S.R.

13. Political and Economic Change  Three major periods Tsarist Rule (13 th Century – 1917)Tsarist Rule (13 th Century – 1917)  Mongol rulers established cooperative tsars over Russia, later lost influence  Tsar Peter the Great (late 17 th – early 18 th century) introduced Western technology and culture  Catherine the Great – ruled as an “enlightened despot”, authoritarian but for public good  19 th Century – Decembrist Revolt (1825), loss in the Crimean War delegitimized tsars, who resorted to secret police and executions to stay in power  Assassination of Alexander II led his son to undo all democratic reforms

14. Political and Economic Change Revolution of 1917, Lenin, and StalinRevolution of 1917, Lenin, and Stalin  Loss in Russo-Japanese War (1905) further weakened the state  Nicholas II was a weak ruler  State collapsed in Feb. 1917 due to World War I Soldiers often fought with no guns or shoesSoldiers often fought with no guns or shoes Massive defections ended any sense of legitimacyMassive defections ended any sense of legitimacy  Marxist exile Lenin returned to take power Lenin’s 1905 pamphlet “What is to be Done”Lenin’s 1905 pamphlet “What is to be Done” Followers became known as BolsheviksFollowers became known as Bolsheviks Formally seize control Oct. 1917Formally seize control Oct. 1917

15. Nicholas II Vladimir Lenin Joseph Stalin

16. Political and Economic Change  1918 Civil War Red Army (Bolsheviks) victory over White Army (funded by Allied Powers)Red Army (Bolsheviks) victory over White Army (funded by Allied Powers) Results in “New Economic Policy” which allows private property ownership in agrarian U.S.S.R.Results in “New Economic Policy” which allows private property ownership in agrarian U.S.S.R.  Death of Lenin in 1924, ensuing power struggle  Stalin placed Communists at the center of control

17. Political and Economic Change  Stalinism Elite recruitment through nomenklatura, recommendation of high level party members to promote low level party membersElite recruitment through nomenklatura, recommendation of high level party members to promote low level party members Collectivization – no more private land ownership, state run “collective farms”Collectivization – no more private land ownership, state run “collective farms”  Peasants who resisted (kulaks) were sent to cities or labor camps, or executed Industrialization – Five Year Plans set ambitious production goals in oil, steel, electricityIndustrialization – Five Year Plans set ambitious production goals in oil, steel, electricity  Plans carried out by Gosplan, the Central State Planning Commission

18. Communist Party of the Soviet Union (7% of population) Central Committee (300ish members) Politburo (12 members General Secretary

19. Political and Economic Change StalinismStalinism Purges – execution of millions of citizens and up to a million party members who were “disloyal”Purges – execution of millions of citizens and up to a million party members who were “disloyal” ReformReform  Nikita Khrushchev wins power struggle in 1953 after death of Stalin Denounces purgesDenounces purges De-Stalinization – loosened government control of press, decentralized economic decision makingDe-Stalinization – loosened government control of press, decentralized economic decision making Relaxed Cold War tensionRelaxed Cold War tension Failure in Cuban Missile Crisis resulted in replacement by conservative BrezhnevFailure in Cuban Missile Crisis resulted in replacement by conservative Brezhnev

20. Political and Economic Change ReformReform  Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-1991) Westernizer attempting to save USSR from collapseWesternizer attempting to save USSR from collapse  Glasnost – “openness,” allowed political discussion and criticism  Democratization – created a directly elected Congress of People’s Deputies, and a President selected by Congress, later elected  Perestroika – transfer of state economic powers to the market, like authorization of privately owned companies, penalties for under- performing state businesses

21. Political and Economic Change  Collapse of the USSR Failed Coup and Revolution of 1991Failed Coup and Revolution of 1991  Coup to remove Gorbachev in August led by conservatives, vice-president, head of KGB, top military brass  Ended by popular protest, defection of soldiers  Protesters led by Boris Yeltsin, recently elected President of Russia Had been removed from Politburo due to extreme views, but won popular electionHad been removed from Politburo due to extreme views, but won popular election 11 republics declared independence after the coup, leading Gorbachev to announce the end of the U.S.S.R.11 republics declared independence after the coup, leading Gorbachev to announce the end of the U.S.S.R. Yeltsin initiates “shock therapy” – rapid conversion to market economyYeltsin initiates “shock therapy” – rapid conversion to market economy

22. Political and Economic Change  Modern Russia Yeltsin resigned unexpectedly in 1999Yeltsin resigned unexpectedly in 1999  Perpetual economic decline in the 1990’s  “Loans for Shares” scandal  Inability to work with Duma  Numerous diseases, including alcoholism  Rapid hiring and firing of Prime Ministers Resignation brings Putin to power, who wins reelection in 2000 and 2004Resignation brings Putin to power, who wins reelection in 2000 and 2004  Stability in the political and economic system  Retreat from democratic commitments of Yeltsin

23. Dmitry Medvedev Vladimir Putin Boris Yeltsin Mikhail Gorbachev

24. Citizens, Society, and the State  Cleavages NationalityNationality  80% Russian, but many Tartars, Ukrainians, Armenians, etc.  Most well-integrated, but slightly autonomous Exception: Chechnya, predominantly Muslim, fighting for independenceException: Chechnya, predominantly Muslim, fighting for independence ReligionReligion  Tsarist Russia was Eastern Orthodox  U.S.S.R. responded by banning all religion  Yeltsin encouraged Orthodoxy again  Most Russians say they are Orthodox, but rarely attend services

25. Religious/Ethnic Affiliation in Russia  Religion Russian Orthodox – 15-20%Russian Orthodox – 15-20% Muslim – 10-15%Muslim – 10-15% Other Christian – 2%Other Christian – 2% Non-practicing or non-religious is largest segmentNon-practicing or non-religious is largest segment  Ethnicity Russian – 79.8% Tartar – 3.8% Ukrainian – 2% Chuvash – 1.1% Other – 12.1%

26. Citizens, Society, and the State  Cleavages Social ClassSocial Class  Tsarist Russian nobles/peasant class system  CPSU membership and nomenklatura replaced nobility as a status symbol, though egalitarian and blind to social background  Now appears that market economy and entrepreneurship is becoming the basis of social class divisions Oligarchs – wealthy individuals believed to be “pulling the strings” of the government, and benefiting from preferential treatmentOligarchs – wealthy individuals believed to be “pulling the strings” of the government, and benefiting from preferential treatment Urban (73%) vs. RuralUrban (73%) vs. Rural

27. Citizens, Society, and the State  Beliefs and Attitudes Mistrust of the governmentMistrust of the government StatismStatism Economic beliefs – right/left divisions formed since Yeltsin’s reformsEconomic beliefs – right/left divisions formed since Yeltsin’s reforms  Conservatives are those who support “the good old days” of Soviet Communism Westernization – slavophile vs. westernizer still characterizes political divisionsWesternization – slavophile vs. westernizer still characterizes political divisions

28. Citizens, Society, and the State  Political Participation Elections – voter turnout around 65-70% typically for presidentElections – voter turnout around 65-70% typically for president Civil SocietyCivil Society  Undeveloped private organizations (people don’t attend church, join recreational clubs, labor unions, etc.)  Soviet system was state corporatism, party controlled all “private” groups  Government still places tight restrictions on activities of groups critical of the government Youth Groups – created by Putin to support the governmentYouth Groups – created by Putin to support the government

29. Institutions  Federal System 83 regions, 21 of which are non-Russian majority called “republics”83 regions, 21 of which are non-Russian majority called “republics” Asymmetric federalism – not all regions are equally sovereign, some are more powerful than othersAsymmetric federalism – not all regions are equally sovereign, some are more powerful than others Putin’s changes (since 2000)Putin’s changes (since 2000)  Super-Districts – 7 federal districts with head appointed by president to “oversee” local authorities  Power for president to remove a governor  Ended election of governors, now appointed  Federation Council was comprised of the governors, now that isn’t allowed

30. Colored regions on this map are “republics,” each with relatively smaller Russian ethnic compositions, and with more autonomy from the federation than other Russian regions

31. Linkage Institutions  Political Parties – based on personalities, not ideology, and loyalty is weak United Russia – party of power, built by oligarchs to help Putin get elected in 2000United Russia – party of power, built by oligarchs to help Putin get elected in 2000 CPRF – not really “communist,” but not reformist eitherCPRF – not really “communist,” but not reformist either Yabloko, Union of Right Forces – both reformist, support democratization and marketizationYabloko, Union of Right Forces – both reformist, support democratization and marketization Liberal Democrats – not liberal, not democratic, CRAZY!!Liberal Democrats – not liberal, not democratic, CRAZY!!

32. Actual things Zhirinovsky (Liberal Democrats) has said:  “Jews are often to blame for Anti-Semitism”  Visited the U.S., said that whites were “in danger of turning their country over to blacks and Hispanics.”  "Condoleezza Rice needs a company of soldiers [and] needs to be taken to barracks where she would be satisfied."  Advocated use of tactical nukes on Chechnyan villages  Threatened to nuke Japan in the event of another Russo-Japanese War  claimed Russia possesses "Elipton," a weapon of mass destruction supposedly more powerful than nuclear weapons  To eradicate bird flu, he proposed arming all of Russia's population and ordering them and the troops to shoot down the migrant birds returning to Russia from wintering  accused Great Britain (according to him, "the most barbaric country on the planet") of fomenting World War I, the October Revolution, World War II, and the collapse of the Soviet Union  Got in a “juice fight” during a debate in 1995.

33. Linkage Institutions  Elections ReferendumReferendum  used for Constitution of 1993  regional Constitutions like Chechnya’s that declared it an “inseparable part” of Russia DumaDuma  450 seats, was ½ SMD, ½ PR with a 5% threshold  Changed by Putin to fully PR with a 7% threshold

34. 2003 Results, prior to Putin’s changes

35. 2007, after changes to the system

36. 2003 2007

37. 2011 Election Results

38. Linkage Institutions  Elections ReferendumReferendum  used for Constitution of 1993  regional Constitutions like Chechnya’s that declared it an “inseparable part” of Russia DumaDuma  450 seats, was ½ SMD, ½ PR with a 5% threshold  Changed by Putin to fully PR with a 7% threshold PresidentialPresidential  2-ballot majority  Questionable in fairness and competitiveness (Putin won 71% in 2004)

39. Linkage Institutions  Interest Groups Formerly only allowed by CPSU under state corporatismFormerly only allowed by CPSU under state corporatism Putin has returned to a similar systemPutin has returned to a similar system  Oligarchs 1991 move to market system allowed many insiders (nomenklatura) to purchase state- owned industries for almost nothing1991 move to market system allowed many insiders (nomenklatura) to purchase state- owned industries for almost nothing Controlled early political processes, propped up Yeltsin and later PutinControlled early political processes, propped up Yeltsin and later Putin  Ex. Berezovsky used his TV networks to help both, later worked with other oligarchs to create Unity Party Putin now solidifying control and loyalty from oligarchsPutin now solidifying control and loyalty from oligarchs  Arrest of Khodorkovsky who financed opposition  Arrest and seize of Gusinsky’s TV company

40. Linkage Institutions  Russian Mafia – gained power in chaos of 1991, control local businesses  Russian Media – privately owned, effectively state controlled Critical journalists often get killed mysteriouslyCritical journalists often get killed mysteriously Journalists Union was evicted to give the building to Russia Today channel, state owned to promote Russia’s image abroadJournalists Union was evicted to give the building to Russia Today channel, state owned to promote Russia’s image abroad

41. State Institutions  President and Prime Minister Semi-Presidential systemSemi-Presidential system President – head of statePresident – head of state  Directly elected by voters  Appoints prime minister and cabinet appointments may be rejected by Duma, but Duma is dissolved if they reject the choice 3 timesappointments may be rejected by Duma, but Duma is dissolved if they reject the choice 3 times  Can issue decrees that have the force of law  Can dissolve the Duma and call for new elections Prime Minister – head of governmentPrime Minister – head of government  not majority party leader, usually a career bureaucrat loyal to the President  Becomes president if president dies or resigns  Putin attempted to transfer control of military and FSB to Prime Minister before becoming PM

42. Popular images of President/P.M./President Putin

43. 21 st Century Succession  Prime Minister 1999- 2000  Russian President 2000-2008  Appointed Prime Minister 2008-2012  Russian President 2012 – 2024?  Putin’s Presidential campaign manager 2000  Appointed First Deputy Prime Minister 2005  Russian President 2008-2012  Appointed Prime Minister 2012 Vladimir Putin Dmitry Medvedev

44.  Russian Constitution restricts holding the office of President to two successive terms.  Starting in 2012, each term will be 6 years long (extended from 4 years).  There is no limitation on how many times one can be elected President.

45. State Institutions  Bicameral Legislature, Federal Assembly Lower House, the State DumaLower House, the State Duma  450 Deputies, elected by PR  Passes bills, approves budget, confirms presidential appointments  Powers are limited due to president’s ability to pass law through decree  Process of impeachment and rejecting appointments are effectively useless Upper House, Federation CouncilUpper House, Federation Council  2 members from each of 84 regions, 168 members One elected by provincial legislature, one appointed by regional governorOne elected by provincial legislature, one appointed by regional governor  Can only really delay legislation – can be overridden by State Duma

46. State Institutions  The Judiciary Constitutional CourtConstitutional Court  Attempt by Constitution of 1993 to create independent judicial system  19 members appointed by president, confirmed by Federation Council  Supposed to have “judicial review” Supreme CourtSupreme Court  Final place to appeal civil and criminal cases Problem – most attorneys were trained in the old Soviet systemProblem – most attorneys were trained in the old Soviet system Courts don’t tend to challenge governmentCourts don’t tend to challenge government

48. State Institutions  The Military 4 million members, most in world (compare to #2 U.S. at under 1.5 million)4 million members, most in world (compare to #2 U.S. at under 1.5 million) Source of power of CPSU from 1945 to 1991, but never challenged authority of PolitburoSource of power of CPSU from 1945 to 1991, but never challenged authority of Politburo Showing no signs of becoming a political institutionShowing no signs of becoming a political institution