2. Formation of Oil What is crude oil? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PYMWUz7TC3A http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PYMWUz7TC3A Crude oil is a fossil fuel (non renewable) Something that takes along time to make and is used up faster than it is made. All the readily extractable resources will be used up in the future Need to find replacements Conflict between making petrochemicals and fuels Fractional distillation LPG Petrol Naphtha Paraffin Diesel Lubricating oils Fuel Oil Bitumen 600 ˚C 20 ˚C Crude oil can be separated into it’s useful fractions as they have different boiling points The longer chain hydrocarbon has the higher boiling point because the intermolecular forces are stronger between long chain hydrocarbons compared to short chain hydrocarbons.

3. Problems – Exploitation of oil Environmental – transportation 1.Damage to bird’s feathers causing death 2.Use of detergents to clean up oil slicks and consequent damage to wildlife Political 1.UK dependent on oil and gas from politically unstable countries 2.Future supply issues Supply must meet demand Cracking Picking the right fuel TEACUPSTEACUPS oxicity nergy value vailability ost sability ollution torage

5. Why is the amount of fossil fuels being burnt increasing? Increasing world population Growth of use in developing countries Complete combustion CH 4 + 2O 2 CO 2 + 2H 2 O Incomplete combustion (some oxygen) CH 4 + 1½O 2 CO + 2H 2 O Incomplete combustion (little oxygen) CH 4 + O 2 C + 2H 2 O Gas% Nitrogen78 Oxygen21 Carbon Dioxide0.035 Other<1 Composition of CLEAN AIR CO2 produced by = taken in by Photosynthesis Respiration PROBLEM – Burning Fossil Fuels Deforestation

6. Degassing of Early volcanoes = atmosphere of H 2 O and CO 2 Forming the atmosphere 2.11 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Db2WAG-VVs Earth cools and water condenses forming oceans Development of photosynthetic organisms Increase in O 2 levels due to photosynthesis Increase in N 2 due to lack of reactivity CO 2 dissolves in oceans

7. Incomplete combustion of petrol and diesel in cars, lorries and buses Sulphur in fossil fuels – coal and oil Oxides of nitrogen – from petrol engines Photochemical smog Carbon monoxide Acid Rain Pollution In car engine: O 2 +N 2  2NO Catalytic converters 2CO + 2NO  N 2 + 2CO 2 REMOVE CO

8. HYDROCARBONS Alkanes : C n H 2n+2 SATURATED-only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms. Each carbon has 4 bonds - - - Each hydrogen one bond Methane Ethane Butane Propane Pentane Hexane CH 4 C2H6C2H6 C3H8C3H8 C 4 H 10 C 5 H 12 C 6 H 14 Alkenes:CnH2n UNSATURATED -at least one double bond between carbon atoms. EtheneC2H4C2H4 ButeneC3H6C3H6 PropeneC4H8C4H8 PenteneC 5 H 10 HexeneC 6 H 12 Test for UNSATURATION – Add Bromine Water : Orange Colourless

9. Polymerisation Monomer Polymer ADDITION POLYMERISATION High Temperature Catalyst poly(propene) THERMOPLASTIC Weak INTERMOECULAR FORCES Low melting pt Easily Stretched THERMOSETTING Strong (covalent or cross links) FORCES High Melting pt Rigid

11. Gore-tex – nylon laminated with PTFE/polyurethane membrane Rain water; Won’t fit through the holes. Gore-tex; Has millions of tiny holes in it. Sweat; Will fit through the holes. SKIN Membrane too fragile without Nylon

12. Cooking Protein (egg) Denatured – permanently changes shape Potatoes Easier to digest - 1.cell walls rupture resulting in loss of rigid structure and a softer texture 2.starch grains swell up and spread out. ADDITIVES Antioxidants Food Colour Flavour enhancer Emulsifier Hydrophobic Water hating attaches to oil Hydrophilic Water loving attaches to water molecules MIXTURE = EMULSION Baking Powder sodium hydrogencarbonate Sodium + carbonate Carbon + dioxide water 2 NaHCO 3 Na 2 CO 3 CO 2 H2OH2O ++

13. Making esters catalyst alcohol + organic acid → ester + water sulfuric acid methanol + butanoic → methyl + water acid butanoate evaporate Volatile liquids evaporate easily. Weak attractive forces between particles – easy to overcome attraction Why does water NOT remove nail varnish? water-water attraction stronger than water- nail varnish attraction Nail varnish attraction stronger than water- nail varnish attraction

16. Paint is a colloid http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6BLVuoUmr94 mute http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6BLVuoUmr94 Solid particles are mixed and dispersed with particles of a liquid but are not dissolved. Solvent – liquid that suspends the other ingredients so it can be applied to a surface. It evaporates quickly so that the paint dries. Binding medium- Sticks pigment to the surface Pigment – colour suspended in the solvent. Paints to dry the solvent must evaporate. Oil Paint Oil is oxidised by Oxygen Emulsions paint- the solvent is water. Thermochromic - Paints which change colour with a change in temperature Acrylic paints can be added to give more of a range of colour changes Phosphorescent - absorb and store energy and release it as light over a period of time. (safer)

18. The Structure of the Earth Lithosphere – relatively cold and rigid outer part of the Earth (crust and upper part of the mantle) Tectonic plates less dense than the mantle Mantle = cold and rigid just below the crust, hot and non-rigid at greater depths (able to move) THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS Energy transfer involving convection currents in the semi-rigid mantle cause the plates to move slowly. Oceanic crust is more dense than continental crust Collision – leads to subduction and partial melting Plates cooler at ocean margins so sink and pull plates down Development of Theory of plate tectonics Wegener’s continental drift theory (1914) was not accepted by scientists at the time. New evidence in 1960s – show ocean floor spreading. The theory was slowly accepted as subsequent research supported the theory http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhxjAAn wNKM

20. Volcanoes runny lava – fairly safe - produce iron-rich Basalt thick lava – violent/explosive – produce silica-rich Rhyolite Geologists study volcanoes - gather info. about Earth’s structure. Live near - volcanic soil very fertile. Igneous rocks Slower molten rock cools= larger crystals Difficult to study the structure of the Earth: crust too thick to drill all the way through Scientists study seismic waves made by earthquakes or man-made explosions. MaterialHow it is made aluminium and ironmetals obtained from ores brickmade from clay glassmade from sand cement and concretemade using limestone granite, limestone and marble rocks mined or quarried from the ground Limestone – sedimentary Marble – metamorphic – limestone put through high temp. and pressure Granite - igneous

21. Thermal Decomposition of Limestone calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide CaCO 3 CaO + CO 2 Limestone + Clay = Cement Cement + sand + water + aggregate = concrete Reinforced concrete = composite material – concrete + steel. Hardness Flexibility and strength Electrolyte = Cu(II)SO 4(aq) Smart Alloys Smart alloys have unusual properties. Nitinol = nickel + titanium shape memory alloy - bent out of shape, returns to original shape when heated or electric current passed through it

22. iron + water + oxygen → hydrated iron(III) oxide SaltAcid Rain Iron Vs Steel Steel = harder, stronger, less likely to rust Recycling EU law – 85% of car’s materials be recycled, >95% by 2015. Reduces amount of waste + natural resources used Hydrogen + nitrogen Ammonia 3H 2(g) + N 2(g) 2NH 3(g) 450°C 200atm Iron catalyst Production costs energy labour raw materials equipment rate of reaction. Economic considerations optimum conditions used - give lowest cost not necessarily fastest reaction or highest percentage yield rate of reaction and percentage yield - high enough to make enough product each day.

25. H + + OH - H 2 O Acid + alkali salt + water Naming Salts Chloride - hydrochloric acid( HCl) Nitrate - nitric acid( HNO 3 ) Sulphate - sulphuric acid( H 2 SO 4 ) Phosphate - phosphoric acid Neutralisation equations Bases:NH 3, NH 4 OH, KOH, NaOH, CuO carbonates: Na 2 CO 3, CaCO 3 Acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide Fertilisers Crops grow faster+bigger-crop yields increased. Dissolve in water-absorb them through roots. Essential elements: N P K Making a fertiliser measuring cylinder measure volume of alkali solution burette to add acid a little at a time until the alkali has been neutralised filter funnel to remove solid crystals of fertiliser after evaporating water from the neutral fertiliser solution Problems too much fertiliser-pollute water supplies Eutrophication - not enough O 2 dissolved in water for aquatic organisms to survive

26. 2Cl – – 2e – → Cl 2 (oxidation) 2H + + 2e – → H 2 (reduction) Hydrogen - manufacture ammonia and margarine (used to harden vegetable oils). Chlorine - kill bacteria make solvents make plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) make household bleach Ions not discharged make NaOH - used to make soap and household bleach. sodium hydroxide + chlorine → sodium chloride + water + sodium chlorate 2NaOH + Cl 2 → NaCl + H 2 O + NaClO http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gCVbAw6c0Rk

28. Rate of Reaction Concentration – increases, particles become more crowded increase the collision frequency = more successful collisions Result = increased rate of reaction. Temperature – increases, particles gain KINETIC ENERGY move around more quickly/ more energetic Particles collide more frequently with more energy more collisions per second more successful collisions Pressure - If reactants are gases you can increase the pressure. More particles per unit volume. Increased collisions frequency More successful collisions Increased rate of reaction. Limiting Reactant -reactant that is all used up at the end of the reaction amount of product formed directly proportional to amount of limiting reactant used. How much product is formed in a fixed time period (g/s or cm3/s)

29. Rates of Reaction Catalyst – increases rate of reaction Small amount needed to catalyse large amounts of reactants Unchanged at the end of the reaction Surface Area – larger surface area (smaller particles) More frequent collisions More successful collisions Increased rate of reaction Fine Combustible powders - An explosion is a very fast reaction which releases a large volume of gaseous products. Danger of explosion in factories that handle powdered flammable substances; custard powder, flour, powdered sulfur. Reaction finished Faster rate Slower rate Rate = gradient = y/x Amount of product formed

32. relative atomic masses of all the elements in the compound added together. Relative formula mass, M r O 16 8 H 2 O CO 2 NH 3 H 2 O 2 N 2 SO 2 Water Carbon dioxide Ammonia Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulphur dioxide Covalent formulaeIonic formulae NaCl CaCl 2 MgO HCl H 2 SO 4 HNO 3 NaOH Ca(OH) 2 CaCO 3 Al 2 O 3 Fe 2 O 3 Sodium chloride Calcium chloride Magnesium oxide Hydrochloric acid Sulphuric acid Nitric acid Sodium hydroxide Calcium hydroxide Calcium carbonate Aluminium oxide Iron oxide Conservation of mass in reactions total mass of products =total mass of the reactants C H H H H O O O O O H H O H H C O O

34. Calculating the mass of a product What mass of magnesium oxide is produced when 60g of magnesium is burned in air? 1. READ the equation: 2Mg + O 2 2MgO 3. LEARN and APPLY the following 3 points: 1)48g of Mg makes 80g of MgO 2)1g of Mg makes 80/48 = 1.66g of MgO 3)60g of Mg makes 1.66 x 60 = 100g of MgO 2.WORK OUT the relative formula masses (M r ): 2 x 24 2 x (24+16) 48 80 What mass of hydrochloric acid is needed to produce 11.1g calcium chloride? Ca(OH) 2 + 2HCl CaCl 2 + 2H 2 O Percentage yield Percentage yield= actual yield x100 Predicted yield Not 100% yield: Filtering Evaporation Transferring liquids Not all reactant made into product Industrial processes want high percentage yield: Reduce wasted reactants Reduce cost

36. Atom economy sustainable development fewer natural resources less waste. HOW do you know what is a useful product?? READ THE QUESTION Atom Economy= M r of desired productx100 M r of all products The amount of starting materials that become useful products. Exothermic Reactions Heat given out, reactants lose energy. Energy level diagram Energy / kJ) Progress of reaction Reactants Products The reactants start with more energy this is lost to the surroundings as heat during the reaction. The products have less energy than the reactants No bond between atoms High in energy. Atoms now bonded lower in energy Endothermic Reactions Heat taken in, reactants gain energy. Surroundings get cooler Energy level diagram Energy / kJ) Progress of reaction Reactants Products The reactants start with less energy, they gain energy from the surroundings. The products have more energy than the reactants. Atoms already bonded. Bonds broken

37. E=mc∆T Energy supplied (J) Mass of water (g) Specific heat capacity of water (J/g/ o C) Rise in temperature ( o C) Fuel Efficiency (J/g) Energy supplied (J) Mass of fuel burnt(g) 4.2 J/g/ o C Calorimetry Measure mass of fuel burnt Measure ∆T Same volume of water Same calorimeter Same heating time Batch process Make product on demand small scale, Fixed amount making drugs that have expire date. Easy to change the product from one to another. Very labour intensive- reactor needs to be filled emptied and cleaned. high cost per tonne. Time needed for cleaning and t change product line Continuous process 24/7 shut down for maintenance Haber process. Automation-few staff cheaper per tonne. less energy to maintain, as long as the process can be kept running. High set up cost Must be used constantly.

39. Which cooking fuel is best? Fuel Temp before heating in  C Temp after heating in  C Temp change in  C Rank order methane2076 camping gas2173 cheap oil1964 expensive oil1966 Calculate the temperature change of a beaker of water for the same amount of each fuel. Then decide which fuel is best.

40. FuelTemp before (  C) Temp difference (  C) Energy transferred (J) Mass of fuel used (g) Energy per gram (J/g) A20563.2 B21644.3 C19523.6 D20613.9 Running an airline These are the results presented to an airline after a test of four fuels. Calculate the energy given off per gram of fuel for each. Which do you think is the ‘best’ fuel?

41. Extracted from plants and other natural products 1.Crushed to disrupt and break the cell wall to release the desired product 2.Boil in a suitable solvent to dissolve compound 3.Chromatography to separate and identify individual compounds New drugs Expensive  research and development time and associated labour costs;  time required to meet legal requirements including timescale for testing and human trials;  anticipated demand for new product ;  length of pay back time for initial investment.

43. TESTING scientist need: labour/salaries/wages/cost of workers. electricity/energy/gas/power costs. Time taken to complete process. Equipment cost Health and safety issues with the drug Pollution controls. Rent, water rates all cost money. The question mentions two factors that are both expensive and TIME consuming. Learn all of these in case it comes up as a 6 mark question.

47. 6 marks question on drugs

48. Answers: NOTE: Scientist publish findings about new drugs to allow other scientist to test their findings and see if they get the same results. To allow doctors and pharmacists know about the drug. To show that their drug is safe. To give scientist chance to develop it further.

49. Different forms of the same element in the same physical state.elementstate Allotropes AllotropePropertiesStructureUse Colourless transparent hard high melting pt Does not conduct electricity Lustrous four strong covalent bonds No free electrons Cutting tools Jewellery Black, opaque Soft, slippery High melting pt Conducts electricity Lustrous layers layers-weak forces strong covalent bonds delocalised e- Pencil lead Lubricants Electrodes nanotubes strong conductors of electricity black solid deep red when in petrol. C 60 semiconducto rs in electronic circuits reinforcing structures Diamond Graphite Buckminster Fullerene