1. Urbanization

2. Population Growth Britain was first European country to experience urban growth – 50% in 1891 Population of Europe increased by 50% between 1870 – 1914 Better medical knowledge, better nutrition, and housing were key reasons

3. Poor Living Conditions Parks and open spaces were almost nonexistent Many people lived in extremely overcrowded attics or cellars Open drains and sewers flowed along streets Total absence of public transportation

4. Public Health Movement Edwin Chadwick became important reformer of living conditions Saw disease and death as primary causes of poverty “Sanitary idea” – Believed disease could be prevented by cleaning up urban environment By 1860’s many European cities had made progress in public sanitation

5. Urban Planning France took the lead during the reign of Napoleon – Redevelopment of Paris (wide boulevards, better housing, parks, and demolition of slums) New system of fresh water supply and sewers were built

6. Public Transportation By 1890’s the electric streetcar had revolutionized city transportation Created suburbs on outskirts Electricity led to the creation of London’s subway system and Paris’ metro By 1900, only 9% of Britain’s urban population was overcrowded

7. Migration and emigration Significant migration to cities from countryside continued Huge numbers of southern and eastern Europeans migrated to America’s largest cities by 1880

8. Social Structure Increased in standard of living occurred by the 2 nd half of 19 th century Expansion of industry and technology created growing demand for experts with specialized knowledge Industrial and urban development made society more diverse and less unified

9. Families Romantic love became the most important reason for marriage by 1850 – Standard of living allowed for younger age when married Middle class females were monitored extremely close by parents High rate of illegitimacy decreased after 1850

10. Family After 1850 the work of most wives was increasingly distinct and separate from their husbands – Husbands became primary wage earners – Child rearing and home domain was wives responsibility

11. Life at end of 19 th century Increased standard of living in Europe Better living conditions Gradually higher wages Lower food prices Increased leisure times, more money spent

12. Leisure Sports attraction increased Soccer, rugby, bicycle, automobile races, and track and field Increase number of women took part in activities

13. Spending Money Cafes and taverns increased Department stores grew significantly Dance halls Concerts Plays

14. Education State’s role increased in education Significant increase in literacy Girls had less access to secondary education than boys