1. How Mediated Sports have Transformed Japan from a Hard-Working to a Hard-Playing Nation

2. Empires of Leisure

3. Todd Joseph Miles Holden Professor Department of Multi-Cultural Studies Graduate School of International Cultural Studies (GSICS) Tohoku University Sendai, Japan

4. Paper prepared for the ８ th Asia Pacific Sociology Association (APSA) Conference Paper prepared for the ８ th Asia Pacific Sociology Association (APSA) Conference Hosted by: Maidol University Thailand December 16 th 19 th, 2005

5. What this is Not … In a December 24, 1990, article in Time magazine, Carl Bernstein employed the “ The Leisure Empire ” title to talk about the globalization of American entertainment – In a December 24, 1990, article in Time magazine, Carl Bernstein employed the “ The Leisure Empire ” title to talk about the globalization of American entertainment – He identified the usual suspects: Disneyland in Tokyo Disneyland in Tokyo American pop music in Brazil American pop music in Brazil American novels on the Italian best-seller list American novels on the Italian best-seller list But the title advanced by this panel and in this paper means something completely different

6. In the Beginning … Indicators “ The first game of the finals between the Lakers and the Pistons … was the most- watched show of that week, beating out competitors like ‘ CSI ’ and the season finale of ‘ The Sopranos ’. ” (Martin Miller, “ Laker Loathing, ” LA Times.com, June 12, 2004. url: http://www.latimes.com/features/lifestyle/la-et- miller12jun12,1,6116997.story?coll=la-home-style) (Martin Miller, “ Laker Loathing, ” LA Times.com, June 12, 2004. url: http://www.latimes.com/features/lifestyle/la-et- miller12jun12,1,6116997.story?coll=la-home-style)

7. … of Something … more than a Sports Culture This paper, though, concerns something even deeper than a society in which sports is the lead form of entertainment. It is the apparatus that both lays the foundation for, then fuels the phenomenon

8. About this Paper Conceptualizes the term: Empire of Leisure Conceptualizes the term: Empire of Leisure Presents Japan as a prime exemplar of such an empire Presents Japan as a prime exemplar of such an empire Focuses on three central elements of this Empire: Focuses on three central elements of this Empire: Sports Sports TV TV Consumers Consumers

9. Within the Context of the Crossroads Conference Asks the Question: What is the meaning of an Empire of Leisure in a time of crisis What is the meaning of an Empire of Leisure in a time of crisis The fact that it exists The fact that it exists The way that it operates The way that it operates The manner in which it is sustained The manner in which it is sustained The results that are engendered The results that are engendered

10. Within the Context of the Crossroads Conference Also asks: To what degree does an Empire of Leisure: reflect, reflect, offer comment on, and offer comment on, and help us understand help us understand the time of crisis

11. 3 Basic Questions: 1. Why Sports? 2. Why TV? 3. Why Consumers?

12. Why Sports? Because athletics is one of the major components of leisure in contemporary society. Comprised of: Actors who fill markets AS leisure-related goods Actors who fill markets AS leisure-related goods Actors who help create markets for leisure-related goods Actors who help create markets for leisure-related goods Actors who assist in the sale and consumption of other kinds of goods and services Actors who assist in the sale and consumption of other kinds of goods and services Outlets for (vicarious) participation in sports Outlets for (vicarious) participation in sports What could be called “ audience engagement ” What could be called “ audience engagement ” Staged events and organized activities that are consumed by audiences Staged events and organized activities that are consumed by audiences What amounts to leisure qua leisure What amounts to leisure qua leisure

13. Why TV? It is the most pervasive medium in the focal context It is the most pervasive medium in the focal context It is the medium through which leisure messages are communicated, and by which leisure is experienced It is the medium through which leisure messages are communicated, and by which leisure is experienced It is through TV ’ s multiple genres – i.e. advertising, sports events, news, “ wide shows ” – that the empire is re/produced It is through TV ’ s multiple genres – i.e. advertising, sports events, news, “ wide shows ” – that the empire is re/produced

14. Why Audiences? It is the non-participant (the viewer, the purchaser) who helps elevate athletic exploits, players, events and goods at the forefront of contemporary society. They are the social group that infuses an empire of leisure with an economic base They are the social group that infuses an empire of leisure with an economic base They are the social group who receive and respond to political, cultural and moral messages flowing through the mediated sports They are the social group who receive and respond to political, cultural and moral messages flowing through the mediated sports It is their activities which serves to re/produce the working details – the form and particularly the content -- of empires of leisure It is their activities which serves to re/produce the working details – the form and particularly the content -- of empires of leisure

15. The Triumvirate of Athletics, Media and Consumers The intellectual, institutional, economic, and social cornerstones upon which the empire of leisure is founded

16. The Concept: Empires of Leisure: Install “ diversion ” and “ play ” at the core of everyday existence Install “ diversion ” and “ play ” at the core of everyday existence Are consumer-driven Are consumer-driven Are consumption-oriented Are consumption-oriented Are mediated Are mediated Most often, leisure is communicated and/or experienced through forms such as TV, Movies, Internet, Cell phone Most often, leisure is communicated and/or experienced through forms such as TV, Movies, Internet, Cell phone In important ways are socially, politically, economically, historically, and/or morally re/productive In important ways are socially, politically, economically, historically, and/or morally re/productive

17. The Importance of Context No two contexts, obviously, are the same They have their own histories and rhythms, values and practices: Institutionalized, embodied, codified and visible as economic, political, moral, social and cultural Leading to empires of various shapes and behaviors

18. The Importance of Context In the case of a society like Japan, the emergence of a leisure empire constitutes a major societal change No more than 60 years ago this society was in physical, emotional and moral ruin No more than 60 years ago this society was in physical, emotional and moral ruin Not 50 years ago it was struggling to right itself economically Not 50 years ago it was struggling to right itself economically Not 40 years ago it was entering a cycle of rapid economic growth Not 40 years ago it was entering a cycle of rapid economic growth Only 30 years ago did it begin experiencing high levels of consumption and an increase in leisure time Only 30 years ago did it begin experiencing high levels of consumption and an increase in leisure time Even 20 years ago its “ sararimen ” were still routinely putting in grueling 18 hour, 6-day work weeks Even 20 years ago its “ sararimen ” were still routinely putting in grueling 18 hour, 6-day work weeks Only in the past 10 years has the work week been shortened and leisure time has begun to increase meaningfully Only in the past 10 years has the work week been shortened and leisure time has begun to increase meaningfully In short, Japan is a society which has known work rather than pleasure, self-sacrifice rather than self-expression and selfishness

19. Implications The mediated content of leisure empires are far from neutral. In the case of Japan, they are more than statements about a (playful, consumption-oriented, or “ free ” ) way of life. Moreover, the messages empire ’ s mediations convey are nation-centered. The preponderance of leisure content emphasizes Japan ’ s contemporary place in the world of nations It concentrates on competition between Japanese athletes and those from other countries Or it emphasizes the exploits of domestic athletic exports in foreign lands IN SHORT: Much of Japan ’ s televisual sports content is a form of cultural nationalism that has moved Japan beyond the status of empire of leisure, to de facto empire.

20. Concept Components

21. An “ Empire of Leisure ” : Installs a particular lifestyle at its core: One of relaxation, disposable time, disposable income One of relaxation, disposable time, disposable income The Empire: Is consumer-based (empire ’ s audience) Is consumer-based (empire ’ s audience) Also refers to and defines a limited set of activities which is also a way of life Also refers to and defines a limited set of activities which is also a way of life Leisure, is (by definition) “ culture ” Leisure, is (by definition) “ culture ” Daily activity is wrapped up in the consumption and practice of entertainment options Daily activity is wrapped up in the consumption and practice of entertainment options Multiple Multiple Many of them are media-based Many of them are media-based

22. The Media Prerequisite An empire of leisure places media at its core Thus, experience is mediated Thus, experience is mediated Communication through consumable machines is primary Forms of communication include: Forms of communication include: Inter-personal Inter-personal Extra-personal Extra-personal Group Group Mass Mass Among the media most favored include: Television Television PCs PCs Cell phones Cell phones Fax Machines Fax Machines Film production Film production Video recording/rental Video recording/rental

23. One Measure: Television Viewing According to a 2003 poll, Japan ranks Number 2 globally in terms of TV hours watched per day. Who is ranked First?: Bosnia

24. TV Viewing: Comparative Stats Bosnia: 287 minutes Bosnia: 287 minutes Mexico: 265 minutes Mexico: 265 minutes Japan: 261 minutes Japan: 261 minutes United States: 255 minutes United States: 255 minutes Source: ‘ 2002 ’ : Une Ann é e de T é l é vision dans Le Monde: analyse les paysages t é l é visuels et les programmes pr é f é r é s de 1.4 milliard de t é l é spectateurs dans 72 territoires audiovisuals, ” Mediametrie, URL: http://www.mediametrie.fr/show.php?rubriqu e=communiques&type=2&id=746 http://www.mediametrie.fr/show.php?rubriqu e=communiques&type=2&id=746

25. Empires of Leisure? Of course, the nations ahead of Japan and America would hardly qualify as “ nations of leisure ” … Of course, the nations ahead of Japan and America would hardly qualify as “ nations of leisure ” … Neither “ empires ” in the sense of economy or polity Neither “ empires ” in the sense of economy or polity Nor “ leisure-based ” in the sense of free time over and above time devoted to employment, education, running a business, household chores, and sleeping Nor “ leisure-based ” in the sense of free time over and above time devoted to employment, education, running a business, household chores, and sleeping So for conceptualization ’ s sake, something beyond mere TV viewing hours is required … So for conceptualization ’ s sake, something beyond mere TV viewing hours is required …

26. A Media Rich Environment For instance, compared to other nations, Japan has: The Third-most number of TVs per capita The Third-most number of TVs per capita Behind China and the U.S. Behind China and the U.S. The Second-most number of PCs The Second-most number of PCs Behind the U.S. Behind the U.S. The Third-most mobile cellular phones The Third-most mobile cellular phones Behind the U.S. and China Behind the U.S. and China The First-most number of Fax Machines The First-most number of Fax Machines

27. Other Measures Required An Empire of Leisure depends on more than media-richness, though. For instance: For instance: economic dimensions economic dimensions political dimensions political dimensions

28. The Economic Dimension Underlying media and its consumption is a certain economic milieu and consumer capability. For instance, Japan is: Considered the second-most-technologically-powerful economy in the world after the U.S. Considered the second-most-technologically-powerful economy in the world after the U.S. Listed as the third-largest economy after the U.S. and China Listed as the third-largest economy after the U.S. and China The largest aid donor in the world The largest aid donor in the world Second (to U.S.) in per-capita national income (2002) Second (to U.S.) in per-capita national income (2002) Third (to U.S. and Canada) in purchasing power by volume per capita (2002) Third (to U.S. and Canada) in purchasing power by volume per capita (2002) Third in budget expenditures Third in budget expenditures Fifth in budget revenues Fifth in budget revenues Tenth in business efficiency Tenth in business efficiency

29. Work Time Most importantly, work time has steadily decreased over the years. From a society dubbed an “ economic empire ” in the mid-1980s: From a society dubbed an “ economic empire ” in the mid-1980s: where work, alone, was the measure of success where work, alone, was the measure of success Now work time is on the decline: Now work time is on the decline: A 2004 survey indicates that in the last decade, work time has declined across all industries, on average, 17.9 hours A 2004 survey indicates that in the last decade, work time has declined across all industries, on average, 17.9 hours or roughly 3.58 hours per day, given a 5 day work week. or roughly 3.58 hours per day, given a 5 day work week. -- Japan in Figures, 2004 Statistic Bureau Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and Telecommnuications http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/figures/pdf/2004f.pdf

30. And Leisure Time Concomitantly, leisure time has steadily increased over the years. A 2001 Survey found that – as compared to 1996 – A 2001 Survey found that – as compared to 1996 – both males and females spent far less time on secondary activities – such as work – and more time on tertiary activities (free-time activities). - Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and Telecommnuications - http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/shakai/2001/jikan/yoyakuj.htm#A

31. Leisure Hours Year YearActivity197619912001 MaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemale Primary10.4110.4210.1910.3010.3010.42 Secondary 7.38 7.38 8.04 8.04 7.33 7.33 7.46 7.46 6.41 6.41 7.01 7.01 Tertiary 5.41 5.41 5.14 5.14 6.08 6.08 5.44 5.44 6.39 6.39 6.17 6.17 In short: Over the past 3 decades: work hours have decreased by nearly an hour a day for both men and women; leisure time has increased for both nearly an hour; The disparity between the two in terms of leisure time is decreasing, though only marginally

32. Contemporary Japanese Time Use Not only is leisure increasing … The primary leisure activity (consuming media) is third among all human activities The primary leisure activity (consuming media) is third among all human activities At 2.24 hours/day At 2.24 hours/day It trails only: It trails only: Sleep: 7.32 hours/day Sleep: 7.32 hours/day Work: 4.34 hours/day Work: 4.34 hours/day Note: other surveys place TV consumption, itself, at over 3.30 hours/day I.e. well in excess of the leisure figures listed above I.e. well in excess of the leisure figures listed above

33. The Political Dimension Political climate is also an important measure Beyond media availability, for instance, is the content that flows through media Beyond media availability, for instance, is the content that flows through media The lack of restrictions in expression, for instance, or access to communication tools is important The lack of restrictions in expression, for instance, or access to communication tools is important So, too, the assistance by government in monitoring work conditions So, too, the assistance by government in monitoring work conditions Enabling a minimum wage (and beyond) Enabling a minimum wage (and beyond) Policing payment schemes Policing payment schemes Ensuring minimum levels of health care so that worker ’ s have the physical ability to make use of any leisure time Ensuring minimum levels of health care so that worker ’ s have the physical ability to make use of any leisure time Ensuring that there is leisure time available for workers – that they are not overworked Ensuring that there is leisure time available for workers – that they are not overworked So, too, must a political climate ensure the freedom to pursue leisure activities as one sees fit So, too, must a political climate ensure the freedom to pursue leisure activities as one sees fit

34. Conceptualizing Empire: Key Strata 3 Strata: Leisure Supra-structure Leisure Infra-structure Leisure Consumer

35. Conceptualizing Empire: Conceptualizing Empire: the Leisure Supra-structure Within the Leisure Supra-structure, 2 dimensions: Political Dimension: the philosophy, practices encouraging leisure production and consumption Economic Dimension: the outlook and apparatus aimed at producing, delivering and consuming leisure

36. Conceptualizing Empire: the Conceptualizing Empire: the Leisure Infra-structure Within the Leisure Infra-structure, 2 aspects: Means/Sites of Leisure Consumption Included here is media Means/Goods of Leisure Production

37. Conceptualizing Empire: Conceptualizing Empire: the Leisure Consumer Stratum Within the Leisure Consumer Stratum, key factors include: Time (opportunities to consume) Disposable Income (ability to consume) Access to media technology Activities engaged in (actual kinds of consumption)

38. Styles of Discourse: Infotainment Within the milieu is a kind of communication approach -- a rhythm of that lifespace … which assists this leisure consumption In contemporary televisual communication this is often referred to as “ infotainment ”

39. Styles of Discourse: Infotainment In Japan, infotainment is a genre-spanning discourse (what Holden and Ergul [2004] and Ergul [2004] have called a “ supra- discourse ” ) it underpins consciousness it underpins consciousness provides a logic for and style of organizing and presenting mediated communication. provides a logic for and style of organizing and presenting mediated communication.

40. Content: a melding of popular, information and entertainment Popular culture has always provided much of the stuff for leisure consumption Now, however, these are melded with the supra-discourse: the “ popular ” is loaded into and located in everything from advertising to quiz shows to news to “ wide- ”, “ wake up ” and variety shows the “ popular ” is loaded into and located in everything from advertising to quiz shows to news to “ wide- ”, “ wake up ” and variety shows this is particularly true of athletes and their sports, as I have shown in other research (Holden 2002, 2003). this is particularly true of athletes and their sports, as I have shown in other research (Holden 2002, 2003).

41. Content: a balance of indigenous and exogenous elements Under contemporary conditions, globalization ensures that the stuff of leisure consumption may not all be indigenous Usually we think of exogenous material as that which is imported – that enters the focal context from outside However, in the case of Japanese sports and athletes, it is often the case that indigenous material (local athletes and teams) become exogenous (through their play outside the country). They are re-imported by local media for consumption by local viewers and fans.

42. Media Re-import: Effects As a phenomenon, media re-imports are: Pervasive Powerful Re-imports: Constitute a daily, non-stop set of representations Across the panoply of TV genres (primarily) Reflect a unified discourse: Offer windows into subterranean topics (culturally relevant societal myths), such as: Cultural and political identity Individual capacity Gender identity Nationalism

43. Some Examples 1. Staged Events 2. Late Evening News  Hodo Station  News 23: Chikushi in New York 3. Late Night Sports  Suporuto! 4. Morning Shows  Mezamashi Telebi

44. 1. Staged Events Japan is home to made-for TV Events which help build its physical and intellectual status as an Empire of Leisure Examples: Examples: Marathons Marathons World Cup Volleyball World Cup Volleyball Asian basketball Championships Asian basketball Championships NFL pre-season matches NFL pre-season matches NBA and NHL regular season matches NBA and NHL regular season matches Soccer (invitational) Club Championship Soccer (invitational) Club Championship And many more … And many more …

45. An Example of Staging: Volleyball Japan played host to FIVA ’ s Olympic Qualifying Tournament The First Round (automatic placement) The First Round (automatic placement) The Second Round (for the remaining slots) The Second Round (for the remaining slots) Both men ’ s and women ’ s divisions held round-robin tournaments Both men ’ s and women ’ s divisions held round-robin tournaments

46. Volleyball: a made-for-TV event The Japanese team played each day In a packed arena Other matches were played in virtual empty gyms Last match of the day Broadcast on TV The pre-match “ opening ” included a pop song written for the event and performed by a J-Pop group, NEWS. Commercial breaks included staged interviews with celebrities who urged “ gambare Nippon ” (fight hard Japan!) Breaks between sets included musical interludes in which the performers urged the crowd to scream for their team ( “ Nippon ” – clap, clap, clap – “ Nippon ” – clap, clap, clap … ) The final days – in which the women succeeded in qualifying – included so-called “ Hero Interviews ” with each player in front of the adoring audience in the gym and also on TV. This was followed by the players and coaches making the rounds of all the (nation-wide) evening sports shows and morning wide shows for the next 2 days.

47. 2. Late Evening News: a. The Hodo Station On their home page they list the “Sports Station” as a separate “site” within their website. Its own graphic is centered on the web page

48. A Week of Sports News Hodo Station (Information Station): Monday-Friday 21:54 - 23:24 DateContent Monday, June 7 Japanese Baseball (Pacific League: 3 games) Japanese Baseball (Pacific League: 3 games) Major League Highlights Major League Highlights World Cup Soccer (Preliminary round preparations) World Cup Soccer (Preliminary round preparations) Women ’ s Olympic Volleyball (Selection) Women ’ s Olympic Volleyball (Selection) Interview with International Footballer Hidetoshi Nakata Interview with International Footballer Hidetoshi Nakata Tuesday, June 8 Japanese Baseball (Pacific League: 3 games; Central League 3 games) Japanese Baseball (Pacific League: 3 games; Central League 3 games) Major League Highlights Major League Highlights Soccer World Cup qualifier versus India Soccer World Cup qualifier versus India National Team Soccer Coach Jico Interview National Team Soccer Coach Jico Interview Match Analysis by Fukuda (former World Cup member) Match Analysis by Fukuda (former World Cup member) Wednesday, June 9 Japanese Baseball (Pacific League: 3 games; Central League 3 games) Japanese Baseball (Pacific League: 3 games; Central League 3 games) Soccer World Cup qualifier versus India (recap) Soccer World Cup qualifier versus India (recap) Major League Highlights Major League Highlights Thursday, June 10 Japanese Baseball (Central League 1 games) Japanese Baseball (Central League 1 games) Major League Highlights Major League Highlights Suntory Ladies Golf Tourney Suntory Ladies Golf Tourney U.S. Open Golf U.S. Open Golf Special Interview with International Footballer Shinji Ono Special Interview with International Footballer Shinji Ono Friday, June 11 Japanese Baseball (Central League: 3 games; Pacific League 3 games) Japanese Baseball (Central League: 3 games; Pacific League 3 games) Major League Highlights Major League Highlights Suntory Ladies Golf Tourney Suntory Ladies Golf Tourney

49. Emphasizing Nation This week is typical of ALL nationally-televised news shows in Japan a steady diet of: a steady diet of: national teams: national teams: For instance, Olympic volleyball, World Cup soccer For instance, Olympic volleyball, World Cup soccer International performers International performers Interviews with overseas soccer players Interviews with overseas soccer players Daily capsule summaries of Japanese baseball players in (American) baseball or (European) soccer leagues Daily capsule summaries of Japanese baseball players in (American) baseball or (European) soccer leagues

50. Japan ’ s Women ’ s Soccer Success In qualifying action, Japan were grouped with Viet Nam, North Korea and China. Hodo Station visited their training camp and showed segments on their preparations.

51. Japan ’ s Women ’ s Soccer Success When the tournament began, they emphasized the 7-0 pounding of Viet Nam

52. Japan ’ s Women ’ s Soccer Success Then the stunning 3-0 victory over bitter rival North Korea. Japan had lost seven straight to North Korea Japan had lost seven straight to North Korea There has been an acrimonious history – based on North Korea kidnapping Japanese citizens, as well as sending a test missile over the Japanese peninsula There has been an acrimonious history – based on North Korea kidnapping Japanese citizens, as well as sending a test missile over the Japanese peninsula

53. Japan ’ s Women ’ s Soccer Success For the media, the 1-0 loss to China in the Final was an afterthought. The fact that Japan had qualified for the Olympics was all that mattered. The frame was of National Success These were NOT images shown on most news stations

54. The Daily Major League Capsules I have reported this extensively in other research (Holden 2002, 2003, forthcoming). A news convention has become the summary of the key Japanese performers in American baseball. Thus, there is a daily 5 to 10 second clip of Hideki Matsui (Yankees), Kazuo Matsui (Mets), Ichiro Suzuki (Mariners) Thus, there is a daily 5 to 10 second clip of Hideki Matsui (Yankees), Kazuo Matsui (Mets), Ichiro Suzuki (Mariners) And, depending on the day, summaries also of pitchers Hideo Nomo (Dodgers), Kazuhisa Ishii (Dodgers), Shingo Takatsu (White Sox), Akinori Ohtsuka (Padres), Tomokazu Ohka (Montreal) And, depending on the day, summaries also of pitchers Hideo Nomo (Dodgers), Kazuhisa Ishii (Dodgers), Shingo Takatsu (White Sox), Akinori Ohtsuka (Padres), Tomokazu Ohka (Montreal)

55. A Typical Capsule Typically, the capsules: Show footage of the offensive or defensive highlight for each player that day A “ line ” report also appears: how many hits for the day out of how many at-bats The player ’ s current batting average Less often there is a sound bite: a post-game interview with the player Only in the final frame is there a superimposed image of the score of the game Offered as an afterthought

56. A Typical Capsule: Ichiro: moved from the lead-off to the third position. He got a double. His batting average is at.330 Matsui Hideki: 7 straight games now he has not been on base; his batting average has once again fallen from.300 to.280 in that span. Matsui Kazuo: 4 strike-outs in one game. The first time this has ever happened to him. His average now at.262 Shingo Takatsu Shingo Takatsu: the reliever in his first year with the Chicago White Sox, pitched a scoreless 9 th inning, for his second save. He has 3 wins to go with his 2 saves and his ERA is at a very low 1.11 In each case, the result of the games is reported, if at all, in a superimposed inset above the footage. It is often not commented upon by the newsreader.

57. The Exceptional Case Nomo versus Matsui: 6/19/04 When these 2 squared off for the first time (never having done so in Japan) it was big news. Not only was the game broadcast in Japan live via satellite, it also was the top story in the evening sports reports. The story line was that Matsui homered off Nomo in his first at-bat. Nomo, himself homered, the first time 2 rival Japanese had done that in one U.S. game Nomo struck out Matsui the other 2 at-bats Still, Nomo lost In this case the action was told as an unfolding story.

58. Contrasted with the Domestic Game This stands in contrast with the reports from Japan on the Japanese game In this case, game reports are told in story-form. Inning by inning, we view the lead changes, the key hits, the momentum-changing errors and managerial decisions Every game, in short, has a frame After all the reports are finished, the domestic standings are shown on-screen (unlike the American game)

59. Soccer: The Same Pattern Foreign soccer tends to focus on Japanese player highlights Although, there is also a tendency to spotlight key plays from Italy, England and Spain (primarily) Although, there is also a tendency to spotlight key plays from Italy, England and Spain (primarily) Often (but not always) announcing the world- renowned players (and their country of origin) Often (but not always) announcing the world- renowned players (and their country of origin) Domestic action is more often story-line, frame and standings.

60. 2. Late Evening News: b. News 23 June 14 th, 2004. “ News 23 ” (Nyuzu tsu suri ) includes an extended segment with their editor-in- chief and lead anchor, Chikuchi Tetsuya, reporting from New York. June 14 th, 2004. “ News 23 ” (Nyuzu tsu suri ) includes an extended segment with their editor-in- chief and lead anchor, Chikuchi Tetsuya, reporting from New York.

61. An Example Following a week in which he covered the G8 Summit in Georgia and the Reagan funeral in Washington, he visited New York to interview Hideki Matsui, the left fielder for the baseball team, New York Yankees. The Matsui segment included: riding on the subway to the stadium showing (and purchasing) Matsui goods from vendors fan Interviews about Matsui entering the stadium grounds and having a brief chat with Tomo Ohtsuka, the San Diego Padre pitcher who would (possibly) be playing in the game against the Yankees some game highlights of both Ohtsuka and Matsui and then an extended interview with Matsui on a roof garden in N.Y. City after the game

62. The Fan Segment “ My Mom just loves him. Of all the Yanks he ’ s her favorite ” -- A twenty year old male fan standing next to a quiet older woman “ I like him too. I mean … he ’ s just so fundamentally sound. Of all the players, he can do more things right. ” -- the same 20 year old fan IN SHORT: this segment serves as a reflection of respect for Matsui, the Japanese import, in the estimation of fans. It is one interpretation available for the audience back home

63. The Ohtsuka Segment Common (for interviews with Japanese players) because the American lifestyle was discussed: Basically how easy was it to live and play in America Basically how easy was it to live and play in America In Ohtsuka ’ s case, the pitching mound suited him better than in Japan; he also found American life easy to handle – from food to living conditions to people In Ohtsuka ’ s case, the pitching mound suited him better than in Japan; he also found American life easy to handle – from food to living conditions to people A contrast, perhaps, to views asserted for so many years by Japanese that only Japan is hospitable for them to live comfortably. A contrast, perhaps, to views asserted for so many years by Japanese that only Japan is hospitable for them to live comfortably.

64. The Matsui Segment In an extended, roof-garden interview (with the Empire State Building in the background), Matsui answered questions about life in the Majors and also in America. One important point that Matsui made is that there is no player that he wishes he could be; or that he would model himself after … only certain parts of various players that he respects and thinks: “ those are strong (good) qualities ”. Viewed in historical context, such a comment amounts to a revelation: Japanese, known in the past to be self-effacing, would not generally express such implicit confidence. It is subtle, but Matsui is basically saying: “ I ’ m me. Happy to be who I am. In no need of modeling myself after anyone else. ” This is a quite confidence now the dominant perspective among all Japanese sports imports.

65. 4. Late Night Sports: Suporuto! A show that runs every day of the week (Monday – Sunday) Shows at Mid-night Has daily, fixed corners: Yakyuu (Japanese baseball) Yakyuu (Japanese baseball) MLB MLB F-1 F-1 (Domestic) Soccer (Division 1 and 2) (Domestic) Soccer (Division 1 and 2) “ Regular Corner ” : NBA corner, European Soccer “ Regular Corner ” : NBA corner, European Soccer And features, based on the events NBA finals, Golf, K-1 NBA finals, Golf, K-1Additionally: Periodic reports from an embedded journalist in New York, with profiles on the Matsuis (primarily). Periodic reports from an embedded journalist in New York, with profiles on the Matsuis (primarily). Interviews with soccer and baseball players Interviews with soccer and baseball players Profiles of Japanese Women ’ s Volleyball Profiles of Japanese Women ’ s Volleyball

66. Examples from the Suporuto! Web Site The top page The top pagetop pagetop page The Weekly News Schedule The Weekly News ScheduleWeekly News ScheduleWeekly News Schedule The Volleyball Interviews The Volleyball Interviews Sugiyama Sugiyama Sugiyama Narita Narita Narita Takehita Takehita Takehita Takahashi Takahashi Takahashi A Nakata (soccer) Interview A Nakata (soccer) Interview

67. Suporuto! ’ s Nihon-centric Focus June 21, 2004: F-1 Extra! First 20 minutes devoted to an F-1 Race in which a Japanese finished in 3 rd place First 20 minutes devoted to an F-1 Race in which a Japanese finished in 3 rd place First top-3 finish by a Japanese in 14 years First top-3 finish by a Japanese in 14 years A curve-by-curve accounting of how he moved through the field A curve-by-curve accounting of how he moved through the field Images of fans waving Japanese flags Images of fans waving Japanese flags Interviews with the driver (in English, with subtitles) about how it feels to “ be the first Japanese to be on the podium in 14 years Interviews with the driver (in English, with subtitles) about how it feels to “ be the first Japanese to be on the podium in 14 years Interviews with the sponsors: Bridgestone (tires) and Honda (engine) Interviews with the sponsors: Bridgestone (tires) and Honda (engine) Bridgestone is a loaded signifier because of recent corporate malfeasance Bridgestone is a loaded signifier because of recent corporate malfeasance The Honda pit chief broke down and cried, saying: “ It ’ s the culmination of years of effort …. And we couldn ’ t have succeeded without the support of the Japanese people. ” The Honda pit chief broke down and cried, saying: “ It ’ s the culmination of years of effort …. And we couldn ’ t have succeeded without the support of the Japanese people. ”

68. 5. The Morning Shows: Mezamashi Terebi (Alarm Clock Television): 5:25 ～ 8:00 a.m.

69. Capsules Repeated A different day, a different station. The very same capsule summaries are repeated. Baseball and soccer Baseball and soccer In baseball, the player ’ s daily line and key plays (hits, fielding, errors, outs) are detailed. In baseball, the player ’ s daily line and key plays (hits, fielding, errors, outs) are detailed. In soccer, the goals, assists, shots on goals and/or substitutions (in which the player came onto or off the pitch) are shown In soccer, the goals, assists, shots on goals and/or substitutions (in which the player came onto or off the pitch) are shown Only in exceptional cases are foreign highlights shown: Only in exceptional cases are foreign highlights shown: Barry Bonds 72 nd home run Barry Bonds 72 nd home run Ken Griffey ’ s 500 th home run Ken Griffey ’ s 500 th home run Euro 2004 goals in crucial matches Euro 2004 goals in crucial matches

70. Occasional Departures from Nation Growing indicators of an interest in the world of sport and leisure, in general Example: Euro 2004. A fascination with a major tournament without Japanese players is a major break from the general pattern of sports coverage in TV media. It suggests that more than political-cultural empire, there is a leisure empire effect at work

71. Nihon-Centrism Redux Still, such a focus is still not predominant Still, such a focus is still not predominant At most, there tends to be snippets of foreign action: NBA Finals or a Super Bowl or World Series At most, there tends to be snippets of foreign action: NBA Finals or a Super Bowl or World Series And the reality is: if Tiger Woods wins a tournament, that ’ s 20 seconds of news; if Shige Maruyama is in contention and ends up in 4 th (as he did in the U.S. Open), that ’ s 3 minutes of air time. And the reality is: if Tiger Woods wins a tournament, that ’ s 20 seconds of news; if Shige Maruyama is in contention and ends up in 4 th (as he did in the U.S. Open), that ’ s 3 minutes of air time.

72. Analysis: Interpretations An analysis of the Empire of Leisure phenomenon can easily draw on the writings or ideas by: The Frankfurt School The Frankfurt School Douglas Kellner ’ s “ Media Culture ” (1995) Douglas Kellner ’ s “ Media Culture ” (1995) Media Frames Media Frames Bourdieu ’ s notion of Habitas (1980) Bourdieu ’ s notion of Habitas (1980) Barthes “ mythologies ” (1957) Barthes “ mythologies ” (1957)

73. The Frankfurt School Applicable Tenets The notion of a universalized, commercialized, mass culture The notion of a universalized, commercialized, mass culture Technological rationality Technological rationality Messages of Consumerism Messages of Consumerism Emphasis on short-term gratification by a consuming audience Emphasis on short-term gratification by a consuming audience The myth of classlessness The myth of classlessness Here in the performance and consumption of these cultural products Here in the performance and consumption of these cultural products All inspired, stoked and reproduced by a “ Culture Industry ”

74. Kellner: Media Culture Applicable Tenets The notion that: “ we live in a culture in which the media dominate leisure and culture. ” (1995:35). The notion that: “ we live in a culture in which the media dominate leisure and culture. ” (1995:35). The media: The media: Have replaced forms of high culture Have replaced forms of high culture Have become the dominant form of socialization Have become the dominant form of socialization Are arbiters of taste, values and thought Are arbiters of taste, values and thought Present new models of identification Present new models of identification Transmit images of style, fashion and behavior Transmit images of style, fashion and behavior (1995: 17) (1995: 17)

75. Media Frames: The Power of Directivity and Selectivity In my work on advertising I distinguish between: “ directivity ” (the ability to move viewers toward particular values, ideas, practices or away from others) And: “ selectivity ” (the tendency to single out particular elements or angles of viewing) This agenda-setting is similar to “ Framing Research ” A line that began with Goffman And was adapted by News Researchers, such as Gitlin (1980), Entman (1991), and Gamson (1992)

76. Bourdieu ’ s Habitas (1980) Defined: systems of durable, transposable dispositions structured structures predisposed to function as structuring structures principles which generate and organize practices and representations that can be objectively adapted to their outcomes The structures of habitas are products of history Which produce history They are the basis of the perception and appreciation of all subsequent experiences Similar in this way, then, to Frames Also quite amenable with Barthes ’ notion of “ Mythologies ”

77. Barthes ’ Mythologies (1957/1972) News stories/media products communicate in code News stories/media products communicate in code The code are significations that reach to (and emanate from) the deepest values underlying a society The code are significations that reach to (and emanate from) the deepest values underlying a society Thus, the news frames tend to encode messages that pertain to the implicit, long-standing question of Japan ’ s competence Thus, the news frames tend to encode messages that pertain to the implicit, long-standing question of Japan ’ s competence A remnant of the Pacific War demise and reconstruction in the shadow of U.S. stewardship A remnant of the Pacific War demise and reconstruction in the shadow of U.S. stewardship The frame, as well, of Japanese ability to live in a world beyond insular shores The frame, as well, of Japanese ability to live in a world beyond insular shores The “ Nihonjinron ” claim that Japanese are different than (unique from) the rest of humanity The “ Nihonjinron ” claim that Japanese are different than (unique from) the rest of humanity

78. Codes and Empire Such codes help build empire As in the case of the constant national frame As in the case of the constant national frame But also an empire in which consumer-citizens engage in leisure part and parcel of their consuming it But also an empire in which consumer-citizens engage in leisure part and parcel of their consuming it Such codes can also unbuild or reconfigure empire As in the case of a media frame that identifies an “ old boys network ” or the stratified “ seniority system ” (for attack) As in the case of a media frame that identifies an “ old boys network ” or the stratified “ seniority system ” (for attack) This was the case of the widely-publicized story (in news, morning and “ wide ” show genres) of Naoko Takahashi being left off the Olympic marathon team. This was the case of the widely-publicized story (in news, morning and “ wide ” show genres) of Naoko Takahashi being left off the Olympic marathon team. An Olympic gold medalist in 2000, a world record holder, she had not run in the minimum required races for the year. An Olympic gold medalist in 2000, a world record holder, she had not run in the minimum required races for the year. This decision orning almost all TV “ genres ” ) This decision orning almost all TV “ genres ” ) The case also of the recent decision to downsize professional baseball The case also of the recent decision to downsize professional baseball Concern about the destruction of their national game for the sake of money Concern about the destruction of their national game for the sake of money

79. Conclusions Contemporary Japan is at least three interrelated elements: 1. A “ consumtopia ” – an everyday space saturated with goods and services; an environment whose lifestyle is predicated on the production and consumption of things; 2. A mediated world in which what is increasingly consumed is information and the technologies that produce it; 3. The information is both manifestation of and spur to leisure; its aggregation forming an “ empire of leisure ” – in which play, competition, and physical performance has been elevated to a status superior to nearly all other activities in society.

80. Media ’ s Role To transmit messages of leisure and consumption to audience members To transmit messages of leisure and consumption to audience members In doing so, it works: In doing so, it works: to provide a frame for everyday existence to provide a frame for everyday existence a “ habitas ” for daily life a “ habitas ” for daily life a structural logic of mythic values by which surrounding life is decoded and understood a structural logic of mythic values by which surrounding life is decoded and understood Some but not all of this is nationalism (cultural or political) Some but not all of this is nationalism (cultural or political) The rest of it are messages of play versus work The rest of it are messages of play versus work

81. At the Same Time … We have observed: Not simply media frames; Not simply media frames; Not only the existence of a cultural industry; Not only the existence of a cultural industry; Not only a pervasiveness of media … Not only a pervasiveness of media … But an ubiquity and expression of leisure: But an ubiquity and expression of leisure: 1. interest by audiences; 2. their (political) ability to pursue leisure 3. their (economic) availability to pursue it 4. their experience of it via a range of media

82. Serious Implications Leisure -- the emphasis on play -- means that: Sports are centered in daily life Sports are centered in daily life Sports are not only: Sports are not only: A means of consumption; A means of consumption; Outlets for competition; Outlets for competition; Modes of entertainment; Modes of entertainment; Streams of revenue Streams of revenue Sports also serve as vehicles for centering nation and communicating group identification Sports also serve as vehicles for centering nation and communicating group identification

83. The Rise of (a new) Japanese Empire This form of cultural nationalism has moved Japan: Beyond the status of “ empire of leisure ” To de facto empire

84. Juxtaposed or Read in Conjunction with Cultural Studies The Empire of Leisure (in the Japanese incarnation): Is a cultural structure Is a cultural structure Sustained via economic, political and moral structures and practices Sustained via economic, political and moral structures and practices Fails to acknowledge a time of crisis Fails to acknowledge a time of crisis And even if/when crisis is recognized, it is most often done in the supra-ordinate discursive style of “ infotainment ” And even if/when crisis is recognized, it is most often done in the supra-ordinate discursive style of “ infotainment ” Its results are culturally, morally, politically and economically reproductive, rather than disjunctive or contestational Its results are culturally, morally, politically and economically reproductive, rather than disjunctive or contestational