1. The read-copy-update mechanism for supporting real-time applications on shared-memory multiprocessor systems with Linux Guniguntala et al.

2.  Publish-Subscribe ◦ insertion ◦ reader-writer synchronization  Wait for pre-existing readers to complete ◦ deletion ◦ change – wait for readers – free ◦ safe memory reclamation  Maintain multiple versions of update objects ◦ for readers

3. RCU Semantics: A First Attempt McKenney & Walpole Starting List New Node Copy B to B’ and Modify Move A.Next to B’ B still visible, but not for new readers Readers complete, remove B

4.  Reader-Writer ◦ rcu_assign_pointer() ◦ rcu_dereference() ◦ Memory barriers embedded in API  Writer-Collection ◦ rcu_synchronize() blocks caller until safe to collect ◦ call_rcu() is asychronous call for collection  Reader-Collection (?) p->a = 1; p->b = 2; p->c = 3; rcu_assign_pointer(gp, p);

5.  General issues in non-blocking & swap-free ◦ When is it safe to free memory? ◦ Memory reclamation tracking can be relatively costly ◦ Expensive atomic operations / memory barriers required  Non-blocking queue ◦ Atomic operation expense  CAS (15-25 clock cycles on P4) ◦ Retry on contention  Non-blocking synchronization ◦ Atomic operation expense  store_conditional ◦ Data structure copy expense

6.  With interactions between reader, writer and collector, when is it time to reclaim memory? ◦ Writer identifies what to collect and trigger collection to occur (synchronously or asynch) ◦ Readers (indirectly) indicate when to collect by no longer referencing the freed object

7.  One solution for collector: ◦ Track copies of global pointer into thread-local memory  Each thread maintains a list of it’s currently active pointers ◦ Collector checks the thread-local list prior to memory reclamation  Sounds a lot like the hazard pointer !

8.  Hazard Pointer Disadvantages: ◦ Required manual identification of hazard references ◦ Expensive on the read path  Requires two memory barriers on the read path  Copy of the global pointer to local reference  Entry of hazard pointer into the list  Every read thread incurs this extra overhead as the cost for correct memory reclamation. Expensive for many-reader situations

9.  RCU -> Collection based on ‘quiescent state’ ◦ Threads prevent the occurrence of quiescent state while their local memory is alive ◦ Collector indirectly observes state of all threads to infer when safe to reclaim memory ◦ The definition chosen for ‘quiescent state’ will significantly impact performance  Best choice: Infer by operations that occur anyway

10.  Reader-Collection ◦ rcu_read_lock() ◦ rcu_read_unlock() ◦ read-side critical section  Non-preemptible kernel ◦ Programming convention is to avoid yielding in the read- side critical section ◦ Memory reclamation on voluntary context switch ◦ rcu_read_lock/unlock calls do nothing in non- preemptible kernel rcu_read_lock(); retval = rcu_dereference(gbl_foo)->a; rcu_read_unlock(); return retval;

11.  ‘Simple case’: Non-preemptible kernel ◦ All threads use read-side critical section with no voluntary yield  no context switch within a read-side critical section ◦ Collector observes all CPU to determine when all threads have undergone a context switch  Indicates a pass into a quiescent state  All previous read-side critical sections are now guaranteed to have exited  Any new threads no longer have visibility to removed object ◦ Safe–conservative-imprecise–degrades real-time  Detection of quiescent state occurs after last reader use  Collector waits for all readers to finish even if not all readers were accessing the memory to be reclaimed  Delay real-time response due to refusal to yield within read-side critical

12.  Read-side critical section ◦ Readers can now be preempted in their read-side critical ◦ Disable preemption on entry and re-enable on exit  Memory freed using synchronize_sched() ◦ Counts scheduler preemptions  Benefits and trade-offs ◦ Allows use of RCU with preemptible kernel ◦ Read-side critical section won’t be preempted by RT events, negative consequences for RT responsiveness ◦ Additional read-side work to disable/enable preemption

13.  Global counter ◦ Atomic increment in rcu_read_lock() ◦ Atomic decrement in rcu_read_unlock()  Quiescent state defined as global counter=0  Not practical ◦ As CPU count increases, counter may never reach 0

14.  Use two-element array as counter ◦ Atomically increment/decrement as matched pair of ‘current’ and ‘last’ counter ◦ Grace period starts – swap sense of ‘current’ and ‘last’, proceed to only decrement the ‘last’ counter ◦ Counter eventually reaches 0, marking end of grace period  High overhead due to memory contention / cache misses

15.  2xN arrays, N=thread count (2 per thread)  Global index  Updated with rcu_read_lock() and rcu_read_unlock()  Requires a grace- period detection state machine

16.  Improves read-side performance ◦ Avoids cache-miss ◦ Does not require (expensive) atomic instructions ◦ Does not require (expensive) memory barriers  Requires state-machine for grace period detection

17.  Indefinite delays in read-side critical sections ◦ Extends grace period ◦ Exhausts memory since no collection can occur ◦ Writers cannot allocate memory ◦ Need to prevent low-priority threads from being indefinitely preempted  Priority boost would work – but relatively expensive and not required for every reader  Solution is to defer priority boosting ◦ Preempted read-side critical threads added to list ◦ List serves as an ‘aging’ tracker

18.  Issue List

19.  Global definition of grace period ◦ Single delayed thread in read-side critical section can stall memory reclamation for everyone ◦ Stall occurs even though reader’s data is unrelated to memory trying to be reclaimed  RCU Control Block ◦ Reader/updater invocations share defined control blocks ◦ Readers won’t block reclamation for unrelated control blocks idx = srcu_read_lock(&scb) /* read-side critical */ srcu_read_unlock(&scb, idx) /* collection */ synchronize_srcu(&scb)

20. Fast concurrent reads Relatively slow writers Preemption & RT support requires increased read-side work