1. Edexcel AS Geography Unit 1 – Global Challenges (6GE01) World at Risk Climate change and its causes – Part B

2. What are the drivers of climate change? Some changes in climate are caused by nature and others by humans. There is no one single cause of climate change. In terms of the long time scales of glacial and inter- glacial cycles, the most common explanation is the variation in the earth’s orbit around the sun. On timescales of hundreds to thousands of years, variations in the sun’s solar output may fit observed climate trends. The warming in the last decades (global warming) is increasingly seen as driven by humans. Even volcanic activity can change the climate, although only for a few years.

3. EARTH’S CLIMATE CHANGES NATURALLY...

4. 1) Astronomical forcing - variations in the Earth’s orbit Milankovitch came up with the theory of astronomical in 1924. He claimed that the earth’s surface temperature changes over time due to variations in the earth’s orbit and changes in the tilt of the earth’s axis. These affect the way the earth receives energy from the Sun. Earth’s movement around the sun gradually changes in three ways, which in turn affect global climate. These are often referred to as the ‘Milankovitch Cycles’ and include: Stretch, Tilt and Wobble.

5. Stretch (Orbital Eccentricity) The path of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun changes from an almost perfect circle to an ellipse and back again about every 96,000 years This changes the distance from the Sun to the Earth, and so the amount of energy the Earth receives from the Sun (at different times of the year) Earth’s orbit is elliptical right now – it is closest to the sun in January and furthest away in July

7. Tilt (Obliquity) The Earth is tilted at an angle as it orbits the Sun, called its axis (currently 23.5°). This changes between about 21.5° and 24.5° over a cycle of about 41,000 years and back again. The change in tilt changes the amount of energy that different latitudes receive, changing global climate. When the tilt is greater (24.5°) the larger the difference between Summer and Winter.

9. Wobble (Precession) The axis of the Earth also wobbles like a spinning top on a cycle of about 22,000 years Because Earth is closest to the Sun in January, winter in the northern hemisphere is mild and summer is cool The wobble of the axis means this gradually changes – the seasons will eventually swap over When this happens, the Earth will still be closest to the sun in January, but this will now be summer in the northern hemisphere.

10. Wobble (Precession) continued... The Earth will still be furthest away from the Sun in July, but this will now be winter in the northern hemisphere So in the northern hemisphere, winter would then be colder because it would be at the time when the Earth is further from the sun, and summer would be hotter, because its at the time when the Earth is closer to the sun

12. All three together! The combined effects of these cycles

13. In support of Milankovitch theory is the fact that the ice ages have occurred regularly after 100,000 years However, the effect of the orbital change on solar radiation input and distribution is small (maybe only to change the temperature by 0.5 C globally. We know that global ice ages were 5 C colder than interglacials so many scientists believe the Milankovitch cycles may have been enough to trigger a major global climate change but not sustain it. Many believe that climate feedback is necessary to sustain it.

14. P 48 Philip Allan Climate feedback – effects that amplify a small change Positive feedback – effects are make larger eg snow and ice cover increase the albedo (reflectivity) of the earth. This leads to further cooling and greater snowfall/ice cover. This may be how the 0.5 C cooling from Milankovitch cycle is amplified into a 5 C temperature decrease and global cooling. Negative feedback – effects are made smaller eg cloud cover. Global warming increases evaporation and this increases cloud cover. Increasing clouds in the sky could increase the reflectivity of solar energy back into space, this diminishes the effect of the warming

15. 2) Variations in Solar Output The Sun’s output of energy is not constant Sunspots are darker areas on the Sun that increase solar energy output by intense magnetic storms. They are thought to increase and decrease in number in an 11 year cycle – though there is variation within this cycle. Total variation in solar energy radiation caused by sunspots is 0.1% Sunpots have been recorded for 2000 years and good record for 400 years

16. E.g. A period of cooling in the late 17 th century called the Little Ice Age is thought to have coincided with a period when sunspot activity was very low. The Medieval warm period has been linked to more intense sunspot activity. It is not understood if this Medieval warm period was global Some scientists have suggested that 20% of 20 th Century global warming could be attributed to solar output variation.

18. 3) Meteor/Asteroid impacts The impact of a meteor (up to 10m across) or an asteroid (larger than 10m across) forms a large crater and can throw up huge amounts of material into the atmosphere. This can result in a lot of sunlight (energy) being blocked out for months or even years, changing the climate. E.g. The mass extinction of the dinosaurs is widely thought to have been caused by the climate change brought about by a massive asteroid impact. Cooling would be short term unless feedback mechanisms occurred to amplify the change.

20. 4) Volcanic eruptions Major volcanic eruptions also eject large quantities of material into the atmosphere This can also block out sunlight (energy), which changes the climate E.g. The Eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia in 1815 is thought to have lowered global temperatures by about 0.4°C -0.7°C as there was a ‘year without summer’ after 200 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide was released. The eruption of Mt Pintubo in 1991 ejected 17 million tonnes.

21. The sulphur dioxide forms a haze of sulphate aerosol particles, which reduces the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface. So there is cooling. The sulphate aerosol particles persist only for 2-3 years.

23. EARTH’S CLIMATE CHANGES DUE TO HUMAN ACTIVITY

24. Human activity is causing the recent change in climate The recent rise in global temperature (global warming) and the rate of this increase is unheard of in historical terms There is a scientific consensus that this temperature rise is caused by human activity (it cannot be explained by natural causes, which usually happen more slowly) Climate is affected most by two human activities

25. 1) Enhanced Greenhouse Gas Emissions Greenhouse gases include CO2, Methane, Ozone, Nitrous oxide and water vapour. The greenhouse effect is where the greenhouse gases absorb outgoing longwave radiation, so less is lost to space. It is essential for keeping the planet warm (at an average of 15 C). Without it temperatures could be 30 degrees lower.

26. The ‘natural’ greenhouse effect

27. 1) GHG emissions continued... Since the industrial revolution in the mid-19 th century, levels of atmospheric CO2 have increased from 280 ppm (parts per million) to more than 430 ppm (2007). The level had been broadly stable for the previous 10,000 years. The increase in CO2 has caused the increase in temperature (global warming) over the same period because of the enhanced greenhouse effect.

28. Enhanced global warming

30. A concentration of over 450 ppm is expected to lead to an increase global temperature of 2 C…. This is thought to be the tipping point (the point at which a system changes from one state to another) for dangerous climate change to occur.

32. 2) Destruction of natural CO2 sinks CO2 sinks store CO2, keeping it out of the atmosphere – so it is not contributing to the greenhouse effect The biggest sinks are the oceans - CO2 dissolves in sea water and gets moved to the deep ocean by natural currents Another big sink is plants – plants take in CO2 and convert it into organic matter using photosynthesis. It is also stored in the soil as dead organic matter CO2 is released into the atmosphere when trees are burnt by forest fires or to make way for agriculture

33. Destruction of natural CO2 sinks continued... It was thought that a lot of greenhouse gas emissions from humans could be stored in CO2 sinks. It is now thought they will not be able to keep pace with increasing emissions, so more CO2 will go directly into the atmosphere.

35. Reading Unprecedented global warming P50-51 Philip Allan Why is global warming important? P 9-10 Philip Allan Review question P 51 Philip Allan