1. Information Systems and Organisations
NCC Education - Title Master
Lecture 2:
Social Contexts and Perspectives on IS

2. Scope and Coverage This topic will cover:
Perspectives on organisations
Social contexts for technology
Sensitivity of different organisations to types of technology initiative
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3. Learning Outcomes By the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand some different perspectives on organisations
Appreciate how differing perspectives affect technology introduction
Evaluate how social context affects the likely success of IS initiatives

4. Contents Common perspectives on the organisations Technology impacts
Approaches to technology initiatives
Emphasis – People and Organisations

5. Perspectives of the Organisation( the impact of technologies on organisations)
The reason organisations exist is to manage and organise resources to achieve goals in an effective and efficient way ( what is the purpose of organisation? what it is?)
Specialisation of functions (sales, production, marketing etc.) emerge from the need to manage specialist and expert resources.(why there are different departments in organisation?)
So it can be tempting to view an organisation as a ‘machine’ designed, organised and controlled to produce a desired good (factory, hospital ..e.t.c.) For example hospital is a machine to cure sick, factory is a machine to produce goods e.t.c.
organisation culture – the qualities & attributes. Organisation culture affects the technology too.

6. Different Views
..what an organisation means to a person will depend upon the effect/benefits to them
Employees (employment, money, pension, social contact, sources of power, status and career satisfaction)
Customers (goods and services)
Society (economic, societal and environmental impact)
.. the ‘machine’ metaphor is not as useful in understanding all of these

7. Different perspectives on organisations
Different perspectives on organisations. Different people have different perspectives on an organisation.
We need different ways of examining organisations so that we can appreciate the impact of changes brought about by new technology. In manufacturing company ERP systems are useful, but in an educational organisation it is not very useful.
Metaphors can guide us as we study organisations – there are FOUR useful ones
Organisations as Machines (Mechanist)
Organisations as Structures (Structuralist or ‘Formist’)
Organisations as Organisms (Organicist)
Organisations as Contexts for human action (Contextualist)

8. Structuralism and Formism
Note – these are similar because they both involving identifying, naming and determining relationships
Of course, when we describe an organisation we usually employ a ‘table of organisation’ which is a tree structure – identifying both the names and structural relationship of parts
We will use Structuralism in this module because it is easy to think of organisations as structures

9. Mechanist Perspective - 1
Operation of an organisation can be understood using an engineering approach
Changes can be made by design
Challenges are largely technical in nature

10. Mechanist Perspective – 2(like machines where inputs are changed to outputs. For example garment factory, hotel)
Implementation follows a rational and logical ‘planned project’ approach
Resources and costs can be accurately estimated
Outcomes and benefits can be un-ambiguously (without doubt) evaluated

11. Structuralist (Formist) Perspective -1
Operation of an organisation can be understood through the description of its structure
Changes can be made by adjusting structures
Challenges relate to getting resources in the right place (structure)

12. Structuralist (Formist) Perspective -2
Implementation is an administrative process
Resources and costs can be accurately estimated
Outcomes and benefits can be un-ambiguously evaluated

13. Organicist Perspective - 1
Operation of an organisation is similar to a living being
Changes occur by development and growth in the right environment
Challenges are related to achieving the right environment (internal and external)

14. Organicist Perspective - 2
Implementation is contingent (may or may not)and involves many factors
Resources difficult to gauge(measure) in advance
Outcomes and benefits take time to emerge (grow)

15. Contextualist Perspective - 1
Operation of an organisation can be understood as the result of competing interests and differing interpretations.
Changes result from social and political action
Significant challenges are often political in nature

16. Contextualist Perspective - 2
Implementation follows both ‘overt’(observable or open) and ‘covert’(not open) processes
Resources and costs subject to negotiation
Outcomes depend on who is evaluating them

17. Approaches 1
Mechanism and Structuralism are clearly related and conform to an instrumental ‘hard’ paradigm (model/pattern)when considering technological change
The aim of technology in this approach is more effective and efficient ways of doing things
Motivations are economic, to achieve more with less resource
The balance between quality of outcomes and efficiency is market and competitor driven

18. Approaches 2
Similarly, organicism and contextualism, so called ‘soft’ paradigm approaches are related
The aim of technology in this approach is much more open to interpretation
Motivations for technological change tend to serve particular political ends or social agendas
Particular interests and situations tend to override efficiency considerations in both planning and evaluation

19. Different approaches to an organisation summarised
Mechanist approach – engineering approach Structuralist approach – is administrative Organicit approach – process of learning and growth, so the importance is for people and their development. Contexualist approach- change is a political process, the approach will emphasise negotiation and accommodation.

20. Real Organisations
Exhibit characteristics that reflect all the paradigms
All paradigms are useful as a way of approaching change

21. Culture of Organisations
Characterised in many ways
METHODs of Management and Control
MEANINGs ascribed to Ideas, Actions and Events
NORMs of Behaviour
A Shared HISTORY and LANGUAGE – including taboos about what may be said and how it may be said

22. Focus and Organisation Type
Cooper and Quinn et al describe organisations as having cultural types that may be expressed in terms of TWO axes:
INTERNAL or EXTERNAL focus
AND
FLEXIBLE or ORDERED method of management
The classification is shown in the next slide, together with Information Systems that fit well within these cultures

23. Information Systems & Cultural Types (of organisation)
FLEXIBILITY
Open systems
Human relations
CAI(computer aided instruction)
Group decision support
and conferencing
Intranets
Environmental scanning and filtering
Inter-organisational linking
Doubt and argument promoting
Social Networking ?
Extranets
INTERNAL
INTERNAL
EXTERNAL
Internal monitoring
Internal controlling
Record keeping
Optimising
(e.g. typical Enterprise System)
Modelling
Forecasting
Sensitivity analysis
CRM ?
Internal process
Rational goal
ORDER
Cooper (1994) and Quinn et al (2003)

24. Examples Might Be… Human Relations – Social Work Organisation
Open Systems – Advertising Agency
Internal Process – Manufacturing Plant
Rational Goal – Oil Exploration Company
Of course, most organisations may have elements of any cultural type present, particularly if they are large organisations with diverse goals and resources

25. Impact of Technology
Influenced by TYPE and Culture of Organisation or part of organisation
e.g. Human Relations, Open Systems, Internal Process or Rational Goal
Influenced by PERSPECTIVE/APPROACH
e.g. Mechanist, Structuralist, Organicist or Contextualist

26. References
Hassall, J.C. (1999 and 2010), “Some Thoughts on Information Systems and Organisations “, unpublished monograph, source
Boddy, D., Boonstra ,A., Kennedy, G. (2008) Managing Information Systems : strategy and organisation 3rd ed. FT Pearson. ISBN-13: XXXX

27. Lecture 2 – Social Contexts and Perspectives on IS
Any Questions?
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