1. COMMUNITY, BIODIVERSITY, EVOLUTION

2. Ecosystem is the top of life’s hierarchy Ecosystem depends on the complex interactions between its community of organisms and environment ECOSYSTEM LEVEL Eucalyptus forest COMMUNITY LEVEL All organisms in eucalyptus forest POPULATION LEVEL Group of flying foxes ORGANISM LEVEL Flying fox ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL Nervous system ORGAN LEVEL Brain Brain Spinal cord Nerve TISSUE LEVEL Nervous tissue CELLULAR LEVEL Nerve cell MOLECULAR LEVEL Molecule of DNA Figure 1.1

3. Basic Concept of Community 1. Structure 2. Species Interactions 3. Succession 4. Sustainability

4. Community structure Physical appearance Species Diversity Species abundance Niche structure BIODIVERSITY Distribution of species Species Interaction Main component of Biodiversity

5. Biodiversity of the world

6. Preservation of biodiversity is important to humans for aesthetic, ethical and practical reasons Biodiversity provides humans with food, clothing, shelter, oxygen, soil fertility, etc. Biodiversity is vital to human welfare

7. How biodiversity evolve? Evolution

8. The Fossil Record Fossils ◦ Organism’s hard parts preserved  Turned to rock  Replaced by minerals  Or preserved in amber Fossil record ◦ Fossils found, catalogued & analyzed ◦ Shows transitions ◦ Incomplete Three key ideas ◦ Older fossils more different ◦ Increasing complexity with time ◦ Most species have gone extinct The ways to explain evolutionary process

9. The Biochemical Evidence DNA ◦ Similarities in Chromosomes and genetic code. ◦ Similarities in essential Amino Acids, gene structure and gene function ◦ Changes slowly ◦ Also compare amino acid sequences  Cytochrome C  Humans and chimps identical  Rattlesnake 86% overlap

10. Evidence from Anatomy: Vestigial Organs Vestigial organs ◦ Internal features ◦ No useful function Example ◦ Appendix: humans ◦ Wings: penguins, cassowaries, emu ◦ Hind limbs: whales, snakes, legless lizards ◦ Similarities in embryo of vertebrates Whale Snake Penguin

11. Similarities in Vertebrate embryos

12. Chemical Evolution Chemical evolution ◦ Process of combining rocks, water and gases Miller-Urey experiment Formation of cell ◦ Still unknown

13. Black Smokers ◦ Deep-ocean floor ◦ Vents of mineral rich hot water ◦ Diverse ecosystem  Most archaic bacteria Hydrothermal zones ◦ Site of life’s origin?  Protected  Ideal chemical environment

14. Many animals thrive in the extreme environment around hydrothermal vents –Tube worms were unknown to science until hydrothermal vents were explored –They live on energy extracted from chemicals by bacteria

15. The Window of Opportunity Chemical processes ◦ Occurred rapidly Recent discoveries ◦ Schopf  Evidence of life 3.5 billion years ago First Cell ◦ 4.0-3.5 billion years ago

16. The First Cell First cell ◦ No competition ◦ Multiplied rapidly ◦ No reliable replication ◦ Adopt genetic material from death cells create biodiversity Special characteristics ◦ Four nucleic acids in DNA (??) ◦ 20 amino acids

17. The Story of Life First cell ◦ Natural selection  mutations Mutations ◦ Most not beneficial Environment ◦ Impacts evolution Eukaryotes Colonies Hard Shell ◦ Cambrian explosion Natural selection terjadi dalam waktu panjang

18. Geological Time

19. Mass Extinctions and the Rate of Evolution Rate of extinction ◦ 10%-20% extinct in 5-6 million years Mass extinctions ◦ 30%-90% extinct Mechanisms ◦ Asteroid ◦ Volcanism *) ◦ Continental Drift Evolution ◦ Gradualism ◦ Punctuated equilibrium

20. Darwin & Wallace Natural Selection ◦ Variation in populations  Some variation heritable ◦ More individuals born than will survive ◦ Organisms are adapted to abiotic (regional climate) and biotic factors. ◦ The presence and success of a species in a particular place depends upon its ability to adapt Natural Selection and the Development of Complex Life

21. The evolution of insecticide resistance is an example of natural selection in action Chromosome with gene conferring resistance to insecticide Additional applications of the same insecticide will be less effective, and the frequency of resistant insects in the population will grow Survivor Insecticide application

22. Darwin also saw that when humans choose organisms with specific characteristics as breeding stock, they are performing the role of the environment –This is called artificial selection –Example of artificial selection in vegetables derived from wild mustard and dog pedigree

24. Dogs varieties

25. The Evolution of Human Beings

26. One possible model of the somewhat bushy path of human evolution. The letters correspond to the following species: O-Homo sapiens N-Homo neanderthalensis M-Homo heidelbergensis & Homo rhodesiensis L-Homo erectus K-Homo ergaster, Homo antecessor & H. mauritanicus J-Homo habilus I-Homo rudolfensis H-Australopithecus garhi G-Paranthropus boisei F-Paranthropus robustus E-Paranthropus aethiopicus D-Australopithecus africanus C-Australopithecus afarensis B-Australopithecus anamensis A-Ardipithecus ramidus Orrorin tugenensis, Sahelanthropus tchadensis, & Ardipithecus kaddaba 7

27. Primitive human species

28. –Humans exhibit extreme physical diversity Modern human species

29. Species Interactions

30. Species interactions There are five basic types of interactions between species: 1. interspecific competition 2. predation 3. parasitism 4. mutualism 5. commensalism These interactions tend to regulate the populations of species and can help them survive in changes environmental conditions

31. The competitive exclusion principle –Populations of two species cannot coexist in a community if their niches are nearly identical High tide Chthamalus Balanus Low tide Ocean

32. Succession

33. Communities in transition (ecological succession) Communities constantly change in response to change environmental conditions. The gradual change in species composition of given area is called ecological succession There are two types of ecological succession : 1. primary ecological succession 2. secondary ecological succession

34. Primary ecological succession

35. Sustainability

36. Human attitudes and environmental awareness are of utmost importance in the search for solutions to utmost importance in the search for solutions to the biodiversity crisis Sustainable development in an ultimate goal Sustainable development in an ultimate goal

37. Evolution and Modern Human Life (Extra Slide)

38. The excessive use of antibiotics is leading to the evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria ◦ Example: Mycobacterium tuberculosis The evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a serious public health concern

39. Pathogenic bacteria can cause disease by producing ◦ exotoxins, such as Staphylococcus aureus ◦ endotoxins Lyme disease is caused by a bacterium carried by ticks Some bacteria cause disease

40. These bacteria photosynthesize in a plant-like way ◦ They often “bloom” in polluted water Cyanobacteria sometimes “bloom” in aquatic environments

41. The species that causes anthrax can be used as a biological weapon in war or in acts of terrorism

42. Many prokaryotes are environmentally important in Earth’s chemical cycles ◦ We exploit decomposers in sewage treatment Prokaryotes help recycle chemicals and clean up the environment Rotating spray arm Rock bed coating with aerobic bacteria and fungi Liquid wastesOutflow

43. Prokaryotes hold a great potential for solving environmental problems such as oil spills and toxic mine wastes