1. Behavioral Observation

2. Behavior “You can observe a lot by just watching.” Yogi Berra

3. Behavior What people do How people move and what they say, think, and feel Not what people have (e.g., depression, anxiety, self-esteem)

4. Overt Behavior Can be observed by others, at least theoretically e.g., binge eating; bullying; illegal drug use; spousal abuse; time spent with child or spouse; time spent interacting by nursing home residents number of completed Tx tasks; number of times a parent compliments his or her child

5. Covert Behavior Occurs within the individual and can not be observed directly by others e.g., positive, self-deprecating, or irrational thoughts; time spent feeling anxious, under stress, or overwhelmed; time spent craving alcohol or drugs; time spent ruminating about some concern

6. Direct Observation Observation of overt behavior by outside observers

7. Self-Monitoring Systematic observation and recording by a person of his or her behavior or other experiences, either covert or overt Thought records and similar forms that you can download and use in your practice: http://www.getselfhelp.co.uk/freedownloads2.htm http://www.getselfhelp.co.uk/freedownloads2.htm

8. Ideal Characteristics of Behavioral Observation Conducted in real-time Conducted in the natural environment Conducted repeatedly over time

9. Purposes Pinpoint and define behaviors targeted for intervention Explore and clarify the dynamic contexts in which targeted behaviors occur Measure and monitor client progress

10. Decide What Dimension of Behavior to Measure Counts (frequency) Number of times a behavior occurs, usually within some time period (e.g., hour, day), ignoring the duration of the behavior Duration Length of time a behavior occurs

11. Counts Used when the number of times a behavior occurs needs to be increased or decreased Behavior must have a clear beginning and ending, and different occurrences must last about the same duration Count

12. Rate Count per unit of time Rate used if observation times differ count / time

13. Duration Used when the time a behavior occurs needs to be increased or decreased Behavior must have a clear beginning and ending Duration

14. Rate Duration per unit of time Rate used if observation times differ duration / time

15. Additional Dimensions of Behavior Response latency Time it takes for a behavior to occur in relation to the occurrence of some stimulus Interresponse time Time between occurrence of two instances of the same response Magnitude Strength, intensity, or force of a behavior

16. Behavior Products Effects or results of behaviors e.g., urine toxicology analysis for drugs; completed school assignments; number of child safety risks in a home

17. Decide Whether to Collect Contextual Information Clarify environmental conditions that cause or maintain behavior Develop interventions based on environmental conditions that cause or maintain behavior

18. Decide When and Where to Observe Behavior Samples used when not practical or efficient to observe continuously Samples provide estimates of the frequency, duration, or other dimensions of a behavior Accuracy of estimates depends on how similar the sampled observations are to observations made at other times and in different circumstances

19. Time Samples Behavior observed during selected fixed or random times believed to be representative of the behavior Typically involves recording all instances of a behavior, but only for selected periods of time Useful when behavior occurs at a high frequency, or observer only available at limited times Samples can be fixed or random, but should be consistent over time

20. Situation Samples Typically involves recording all instances of a behavior, but only in selected situations Useful when behavior only occurs in a limited number of situations Selected situations should be consistent over time

21. Analog Situations Contrived situations designed to elicit representative samples of behaviors Paper-and-pencil Role-play Enactment

22. Paper-and-Pencil Analog Client asked to respond orally or in writing to a situation presented in written form

23. Role-Play Client asked to visualize a situation in the natural environment and his or her response to it, or to act out situations with the practitioner or others (e.g., in group therapy) role-playing relevant people

24. Enactment Analog Client interacts in the agency or clinical setting with people he or she has difficulty interacting with in the natural environment

25. Instruments for Recording Behavior Keep it simple, unobtrusive, likely to be used e.g., golf score counters, pedometers, small notebooks or cards, stopwatch Google “behavioral observation” and “smartphone” to see what’s new

26. Ensure Accurate Observations Define target behaviors clearly and specifically Select representative times and situations if samples are used Record behavior immediately after its occurrence Train and retrain observers

27. Ensure Accurate Observations (cont’d) Monitor observers Make observers as inconspicuous as possible to minimize reactivity Don’t inform relevant others or independent observers of expected changes in clients’ behavior, if possible

28. Verifying Reliability Check interobserver reliability, if possible and practical

29. Child’s Problems Rated by Mother and Father

30. Reliability Counts smaller count / larger count Duration smaller duration / larger duration

31. Verifying Validity Compare observations to a standard (criterion validity) Compare observations to other measured variables, if predicted relationships

32. Marital Conflict and Depression

33. Minimizing Reactivity in Direct Observation Observers should be as unobtrusive as possible Observers’ presence should be explained to those being observed in simple, matter-of- fact language Observers should follow all formal and informal rules of the observational setting

34. Minimizing Reactivity in Direct Observation (cont’d) Observers should enter the setting during the least disruptive time, such as before, rather than during, a session Observers should spend time in the setting before data collection, so that everyone is accustomed to their presence

35. Set Goals and Objectives Relatively straightforward: e.g., eliminating self-injurious thoughts and behaviors; smoking; enuresis; panic attacks; binge eating or purging; bullying, migraine headaches, truancy; theft; spousal abuse, sexual abuse, animal abuse, or other forms of violence; illegal drug use; binge drinking or other forms of excessive alcohol consumption; or driving while intoxicated

36. Set Goals and Objectives (cont’d) Matter of degree and need to be more individualized: e.g., time spent sleeping; exercising; reading or talking with children; doing homework or studying; interacting with family or friends; feeling anxious, under stress, or overwhelmed; or ruminating about some concern

37. Set Goals and Objectives (cont’d) Products of behavior change: e.g., maintaining a healthy blood glucose level or blood pressure, avoiding psychiatric hospitalization, losing or gaining weight, getting good grades, having more friends, or getting a full-time job

38. Advantages of Behavioral Observation Sensitive measure of change Avoids recall biases associated with retrospective reports Useful for measuring outcomes with young children and others with limited verbal ability Less subject to rater biases

39. Precautions in Using Behavioral Observation Observer’s presence may produce an unrepresentative sample of behavior Sometimes difficult to observe in the natural environment Observation in the natural environment may be costly and impractical