1. Unit IX Lecture Notes 19 th Century “Isms:” Nationalism, Liberalism, Conservatism, Industrialism, Socialism, and Utopianism

2. Nationalism nationalism – people are brought together by common bonds of language, customs, culture, and history developed in Europe in late 18 th and early 19 th centuries

3. Vienna Settlement Opponents nationalists felt nations should be based on ethnicity, not monarchies and dynasties (Congress of Vienna) as basis for national unity nations based on qualities of people not rulers confusion though because of minority groups

4. National Languages nations created based on unifying languages national languages replaced local dialects

5. Meaning of Nationhood some people argued nationalism was based on eliminating dynastic states and having administrative and economic efficiency others argued nations created and kept on the basis of the divine order of things not all ethnic groups ended up becoming nation, as you needed to be large enough to establish an economy

6. Nationalistic Pressure nationalists challenged political status quo in six different European areas England brought Ireland under British rule in 1800 causing problems for two centuries Germany pitted Austria and Prussia against on another Italy sought to take over Italian peninsula from Austria Poland struggled with Russia over independence Eastern Europe – Hungarians, Czechs, and Slovenes sought independence from Austria Serbs, Greeks, Albanians, Romanians, and Bulgarians sought independence from the Ottomans and Russians In each area, nationalistic feelings ebbed and flowed

7. Early 19 th Century Liberals Political Goals – liberals were usually; educators or wealthy excluded from the political process/ looked for; legal equality religious toleration freedom of the press written constitutions Economic Goals wanted free trade less government regulation Relationship of Nationalism to Liberalism opposition nationalists wanted to dominate particular national or ethnic groups within a particular region compatible nationalists could gain liberal support by espousing their ideals (e.g. – Greece)

8. Conservative Outlooks conservative pillars were legitimate monarchies, aristocracies, and established churches did not want written constitutions disliked Enlightenment

9. Hapsburg Empire Hapsburg nationalism in Austria felt threatened by a large amount of different ethnic groups Austrian Prince Klemens von Metternich – felt Austria had to dominate the German Confederation to keep it from developing its own constitution

10. Defeat of Prussian Reform Frederick William III – Prussian leader who created Council of State, which established eight provincial diets Junkers dominated the diets keeping the bond between the monarchy and the landholders

11. Burschenschaften and the Carlsbad Decrees Burschenschaften – student association of German nationalists often Anti-Semitic one member Karl Sand murdered dramatist August von Kotzebue and was summarily executed for the crime Carlsbad Decrees – ordered by Metternich – dissolved the Burschenschaften

12. Postwar Repression in Great Britain Lord Liverpool – sought to protect the interests of the wealthy Corn Law – raised prices on corn excise and income tax – both wealthy and poor paid discontent from masses leaders of the low social orders called for changes had unruly mass meeting at Spa Fields near London Liverpool in response passes Coercion Acts of 1817, which suspended habeas corpus and outlawed seditious gathering

13. Continued Repression in Great Britain Peterloo Massacre – eleven radical protesters killed by militia at meeting in Manchester, England Six Acts passed forbade large, unauthorized meetings raised fines for seditious libel trials speeded up for political agitators increased newspaper taxes prohibited training of armed groups allowed local officials to search homes Cato Street Conspiracy – plot by Radicals to blow up Cabinet failed

14. The Bourbon Restoration Louis XVIII – becomes monarch in 1814 and agrees to be constitutional monarch The Charter – provided for a hereditary monarchy and a bicameral legislature guaranteed most of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen religious toleration – but Roman Catholicism official language ultraroyalism – as revenge for the Revolution, royalists in the south and west of France practically drive the liberals out of politics and into a near illegal status

15. The Conservative International Order the Concert of Europe – nations from the Congress of Vienna agree that one nation cannot take major action in international affairs without working with the others the congress system – the Congress of Vienna removes troops from France after they had paid their war reparations Tsar Alexander I of Russia wants to keep Quadruple Alliance and uphold existing borders Castlereagh, representing Britain feels Alliance was only to stop French aggression

16. The Spanish Revolution of 1820 Spain revolts against its monarch Bourbon Ferdinand VII France with permission from Austria, Prussia, and Russia, but not Britain, Congress of Verona moves in to restore order and keep Bourbon Ferdinand VII in power France gains land English foreign minister, George Manning, attempts to stop further European colonization in Latin America by abiding by the Monroe Doctrine

17. Revolt Against Ottoman Rule The Greek Revolution of 1821 – Greece revolts against Ottoman rule in 1821 Britain, France, and Russia conclude that an independent Greece would benefit strategic interests Otto I is declared first king of the new Greek kingdom Serbian Independence of 1830 – granted by the Ottoman sultan after years of revolts and fighting Serbia comes under the protection of Russia in 1820’s 1856 – officially under the protection of the great powers, but still has special relationship with Russia

18. Revolution in Haiti Francois-Dominique Toussaint L’Ouverture – former slave leads slave revolt against white Frenchman and freed mulattos (1791) 1793 – France abolishes slavery in Haiti 1800 – L’Ouverture makes himself Governor- General for life and continues ties to France 1802 – Napoleon tries to keep Haiti for France 1804 – Napoleon, busy at war with Britain gives Haiti its indpendence

19. Creole Discontent Creoles – persons of Spanish descent born in the South American colonies creoles – resented the peninsulares – white people who were born in Spain, who seemed to get all the political advantages when Latin American countries won their independence, creoles received equal right

20. Two South American Independence Leaders Jose de San Martin – led independence movements in Chile and Peru, later becoming Protector of Peru Simon Bolivar – independence leader of Venezuela / later leads fight at Battle of Ayacucho which ends Spain’s control in Latin America

21. New Spain Area from what is now Southwest United States to Mexico Battle of philosophies between conservative Spanish and Creole groups and and liberal monarchy of Spain Augustin de Iturbide declares Mexico independent from Spain in 1821 and is declared emperor

22. Brazilian Independence Dom Pedro becomes emperor of an independent Brazil in 1822 peaceful revolution makes Brazil independent from Portugal political and social elites in Brazil wanted to avoid destructive wars slavery preserved

23. Suppression and Revolt in Russia unrest in the Army Southern Society – led by Pestel, called for the end of serfdom, a representative government and independence for Poland Northern Society – favored constitutional monarchy and the end of serfdom Decembrist Revolt – when Nicholas becomes tsar after Alexander I, some army officers refuse to swear allegiance to him / the revolt is put down violently Rule of Nicholas I – very little reform, still had serfdom, presence of secret police Official Nationality Russian Orthodox Church provides basis for morality, education, and intellectual life unrestrained power of the tsar Polish Uprising – Poland’s independence movement is in 1832 by Nicholas I who issues Organic Statute – declaring Poland an integral part of Russian empire

24. More Revolution in France Charles X paid sums of money to aristocrats who lost land in Revolution restored rule of primogeniture sacrilege punishable by death put in ultraroyalist cabinet in 1829 in response to liberals in response to military victories in North Africa Charles X issues The Four Ordinances – restricted freedom of the press dissolved liberal Chamber of Deputies limited franchise to wealthiest members called for new elections Revolution of 1830 – Charles X abdicates throne, ending Bourbon Dynasty and putting more liberal government in charge

25. Louis Philippe The monarchy under Louis Philippe was politically liberal freedom of religion freedom of press but socially conservative little regard for lower classes revolts of working class put down violently and expanded territories in North Africa

26. Independence for Belgium Belgium becomes independent from Holland in 1830 British make sure Belgium’s independence is accepted as long as the new nation remains neutral in European affairs

27. Reform in Britain Lord Liverpool, although conservative allows some reform such as greater economic freedom and permission for their to be labor organizations Catholic Emancipation Act – allowed for Catholics to be in Parliament / passed to keep order in Ireland Great Reform Bill – expanded size of England’s electorate, but did not eliminate property qualifications for voting or grant suffrage for women

28. Unit X Lecture Notes: Toward Modern Europe

29. Industrial Society in Europe population and migration – population explosion in Europe leads more and more people to live in the cities life is tough in the city – inadequate housing and sanitation, disease and crime in rural areas serfdom is abolished in Prussia, Austria and Russia

30. Railroads railways built in England, Belgium, France, and Germany easier and faster movement of people and products birth of even more industrialization (iron and steel industries)

31. Labor split of work force – some held steady jobs with good wages, others were the working poor who held jobs with low wages and poor conditions wage-labor force – proletarianization – workers labor becomes a commodity of the labor marketplace the factory owner supplies the materials, while the workers contribute their labor for a wage laborers subjected to rules, punishments, and scoldings (lateness, drunkenness etc) guild system – an association of merchants or craftsmen that offered protection to its members and set rules for their works and products confection – goods, such as shoes, are produced in standard sizes rather than specifically for one customer led to more division of labor sometimes less wages and worker unrest

32. British Chartism Chartism – workers in Britain looking for social reform Six Points of the Charter – never passed by Parliament split of Chartists between those who advocated violence and those who wanted to use peaceful means movement ends in 1848, when economy improves drastically in Britain

33. Early Factory System and the Family in the early factory system, roles in the family stayed mainly the same / fathers employed their wives and children newer, easier to use machines lead to the employment of unmarried women and children in the factories wages for skilled laborers becomes high enough that some children are able to leave the factory and go to school

34. Child Labor The English Factory Act of 1833 – forbade employment of children under nine and limited work day to nine hours for children between 9-13. education requirement (factories had to provide two hours of education) starts the process of nurturing children from the home to the classroom 1847 – Parliament passes a ten-hour workday due to finding wage employment in the same city as their parents, children remained living at home longer than before

35. The Industrial Revolution / Women’s Roles could be associated with domestic duties as housekeeping, food preparation, child rearing and nurturing and household management or in unskilled cottage industries (mostly single or widowed women0

36. The Industrial Revolution / Opportunities for Women in Employment women in the factories – women mostly young, unmarried, or widows working low-skilled jobs, who would leave of they got married women at home or on the land in France – largest group of women work on the land in England – largest group of women work as domestic servants many due to low wages turn to prostitution as a second job

37. The Working Class Marriage women would leave the workforce to live on her husband’s earnings once married marriage less of an economic partnership married women only worked outside the home when forced to women took care of the home, not just for the wage-earning husband, but the children as well

38. Crime and Order during the Industrial Revolution as populations in the cities increased, so did crime rates, especially theft and arson new police forces – kept order, protected property and lives, investigated crime, apprehended offenders appeared in France in 1828 in England in 1829 – the “bobbies” in Germany in 1848 prison reform instead of being housed together with all others, offenders of serious crimes are sent to transportation – to South Wales, Australia goals of prisons change from punishment to reform prisoners isolated from each other – often led to mental health problems prisoners learn skills or a trade some of the worst British criminals sent to Devil’s Island in South America

39. Classical Economists Thomas Malthus – contended in his Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) – that population would outstrip food supply making conditions of working class worse David Ricardo – Principles of Political Economy (1817) – saw viscous cycle in which wages were raised, population would increase, labor market would expand, lowering wages and producing fewer children. Jeremy Bentham – believed in utilitarianism – greatest happiness for the greatest amount of people Poor Law – set out to make poverty the least desirable of all social situations / reformed workhouses repeal of Corn Laws – tariffs in Britain abolished as that would lower food prices and wages at no real cost to the worker

40. Utopian Socialists – often advocated for the creation of ideal communities and questioned capitalism Count Claude Henri de Saint-Simon –did not want to redistribute wealth, but rather have it managed by experts – a large group of directors organizing and coordinating the activity of individuals and groups to achieve social harmony Robert Owen – saw no incompatibility between a humane industrial environment and a good profit envisioned communities where people factory and farm workers lived together and shared their resources New Harmony, Indiana – fails due to quarrels amongst workers Charles Fourier – advocated the construction of phalanxes – agrarian communities where people did different tasks everyday, instead of the same task over and over again

41. Anarchists – rejected both industry and the dominance of government Auguste Blanqui – called for the violent overthrow of capitalism Pierre-Joseph Proudhon – peacefully advocated for mutualism – a system of small businesses would have a cooperation and exchange of goods based on mutual recognition of the labor

42. Karl Marx and Marxism Karl Marx – believed class conflict will eventually lead to the triumph of the industrial proletariat over the bourgeoisie and the abolition of private property and social class – becomes to be known as Marxism Friedrich Engels published The Condition of the Working Class in England – presented a devastating picture of working conditions in industrial life joined with Marx to write Communist Manifesto – called for more radical change then socialism – the outright abolition of private property, rather than just the redistribution

43. 1848 a series of liberal and nationalistic revolutions occur in response to food shortages, unemployment, and poor working conditions Revolutions occur in France, Austria, Italian and German states

44. Revolution in France liberal revolution – led by Louis Blanc wanted a social and political revolution an election of the General Assembly based on universal man suffrage leads to the election of moderates and conservatives revolution is put down by conservative troops, killing nearly 3,500 people Louis Napoleon – the election of “Little Napoleon” leads to a dictatorship in which Louis is crowned Emperor Napoleon III. Frenchwomen (1848) – feminists demand full domestic equality, right to serve in the military and voting rights, but are defeated, not allowed to participate in politics and the movement is eradicated by 1852.

45. The Hapsburg Empire The Vienna Uprising – the abolishment of serfdom by the Hungarian diet quells the Hungarian independence movement The Magyar Revolt Magyars wanted to establish a separate Hungarian state with local controls, while still under the emperor fails as Romanians, Croatians and Serbs who would have been under Magyar rule, prefer to be with the Hapsburgs to preserve their national identity Czech Nationalism – Czech nationalists wanted a unified Slavic state, but their nationalistic efforts are repressed by the Germans and the middle class rebellion in Northern Italy – a revolt against Hapsburg domination leads to war in 1848-1849 / In August 1849 helped by the Russians, the revolt is finally crushed

46. Italy: Republicanism Defeated Nationalists wanted a united Italian state under Pope Pius IX radicals however wanted a republican form of government / radicals led by Giuseppe Mazzini Giuseppe Garibaldi radicals are defeated by the nationalists and by French forces Pope Pius IX – renounces his liberalism and becomes arch conservative

47. Germany: Liberalism Defeated Revolution in Prussia Frederick William IV – announces Prussia will help unify Germany, ending the Prussian monarchy Frederick and his conservative supporters ignore the liberals and put in three class voting – based on tax classes - only 5% of the population elected one-third of the Prussian Parliament The Frankfurt Parliament – intended to write a moderately liberal constitution for a united Germany marked a split between German liberals and German working class wanted a unified Germany, with Prussian leadership William IV of Prussia rejects German unification and the Parliament dissolves

48. The Crimean War war erupts between Russia and Ottoman Empire when Russia attempts to extend its influence into Ottoman territory France and Britain join the Ottomans, to Russia’s surprise and displeasure, the Austrians and Prussians remain neutral poorly equipped and commanded troops lead to massive suffering on both sides helped by French and British forces, the Ottomans defeat the Russians results of war Russia gives up land around Danube River and Black Sea Russia renounces its claims to protect Orthodox Christians in Ottoman Empire image of invincible Russia crushed Concert of Europe dissolved

49. The Ottomans’ Reforms Make Empire More “European” Tanzimat – reorganization of the empire liberalized economy ended tax farming freedom of religion Hatti-i-Humayun – spelled out rights of non-Muslims equal chances in the military, state employment, and admission to state schools abolished torture gave property rights in some regions of the empire, local rulers made reforms hard to enforce reforms an attempt to modernize and secularize the empire

50. Italian Unification and the Republicans Carbonari – ineffective romantic republicanism society of Italy Guiseppe Mazzini and Guiseppe Garibaldi – Italian nationalists who led guerilla warfare in the 1850’s Italian moderates frightened by these uprisings

51. Count Camillo Cavour minister of Piedmont transformed Italy into a nation-state under a constitutional monarchy, rather than a republic became prime minister under Victor Emmanuel I /advocated free trade railway expansion agricultural improvements wanted to defeat Austria, with France’s help to unite Italy

52. Movement Towards Unification French sympathies – Cavour and Napoleon III plot to provoke a war in Italy that would lead to the defeat of Austria war with Austria – the Italians of Piedmont defeat the Austrians, driving the Austrians from Northern Italy, but France betrays Cavour and leaves Lombardy under Austrian control Garibaldi’s campaign – his nationalism overtakes his republicanism and he unites Southern Italy with the Piedmont area under Cavour.

53. The Italian State Victor Emanuel I is named King of Italy (1861) tensions high between industrialized Piedmont north and rural, poor Southern Italy conservative constitutional monarchy put into place, but Parliament is filled with corruption Venetia in 1866 and Rome (minus Vatican City) in 1870 become part of Italy

54. German Unification created by a conservative army, the monarchy, and the prime minister of Prussia, Frederick William IV Fredrick wanted to end the stalemate between him and the liberal Parliament

55. Otto von Bismarck would be more responsible for reshaping European history than anybody else for the next 30 years (1860’s-1890’s) because of the idea of German unification, helped Frederick outflank the Prussian liberals of the Parliament led Prussia into three wars, then spent nineteen years fighting for peace

56. Bismarck’s Wars and Government The Danish War (1864) – Prussia together with Austria easily defeats Denmark to take over northern states of Schleswig (Prussia) and Holstein (Austria) diplomacy gains Russian sympathy by supporting the suppression of Poland persuaded Napoleon III to stay neutral in Austrian-Prussian conflicts promised Italy, Venetia if they supported Prussia The Austro-Prussian War (1866) – Austria defeated – Italy gets Venetia and Austrian Hapsburgs excluded from German affairs The North German Confederation – Prussia now had a federation with two houses Bundesrat – federal council composed of members appointed by governments of the states Reichtag – chosen by universal male suffrage / had very little power nationalism overtakes the concerns of liberalism and Germany in effect becomes a military monarchy The Franco-Prussian War – France declares war on Prussia when Bismarck makes it appear that William I of Prussia had insulted France Prussia crushes France and captures Napoleon III William becomes emperor of united Germany German unification blows to liberalism, France, and the Hapsburg empire

57. France Goes From Empire to Third Republic France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian war spelled the end of the liberal empire The Paris Commune – radicals and socialists attempt to govern Paris away from the rest of France, but are put down by the National Assembly at the cost of 20,000 lives / victory for the nation-state The Third Republic – when quarreling monarchists can’t agree on a new king, the National Assembly turns to a republic system a Chamber of Deputies elected by universal male suffrage a Senate chosen indirectly president elected by both legislative houses

58. The Dreyfus Affair French Captain Alfred Dreyfus is falsely accused of passing secret information to the Germans (1894) after Dreyfus, is sent to Devil’s Island, evidence of forgery comes in, but he is not aquitted Dreyfus, who was Jewish, is still guilty according to the army, French Catholic Church, political conservatives, and anti-Semitic newspapers liberal novelist Emile Zola, along with numerous liberals, radicals, and socialists call for a new trial for Dreyfus president of France pardons Dreyfus and the conviction is set aside in 1906 puts conservatives on the defensive for framing an innocent man and embracing anti-Semitism

59. The Hapsburg Empire the empire in the 1840’-1860’s remained dynastic, absolutist, and agrarian as compared with the rest of Europe Austrian defeat by France in 1859 and Prussia in 1866 confirms that a new government is needed

60. The Hapsburg Dual Monarchy Francis Joseph issues February Patent, which sets up a bicameral imperial government or Reichsrat Francis Joseph and the Magyars come up with Compromise or Ausgleich of 1867 setting up a dual monarchy known as Austria-Hungary to replace Hapsburg empire

61. Nationality Unrest the Magyars now had nationality as they basically controlled the Hungary part of Austria-Hungary the Ruthenians, Romanians, Croatians, and especially the Czechs oppose the Compromise of 1867 Francis Joseph in response makes German and Czech equal languages and universal male suffrage in Austria, but not Hungary, throwing the Reichsrat into chaos wanting to be linked by a common race and language; Croats, Poles, Ukrainians, Romanians, Italians, Bosnians, and Serbs all look towards nationalism consequences of nationalism are two World Wars and unrest today

62. Russian Reforms under Alexander II serfdom abolished positives – serfs gain rights to marry without permission, to buy and sell land, to sue in court and to pursue trades negatives – over a forty-nine year period serfs have to pay back, including interest, their landlords in order to receive their land local government reform – local government run by zemstvos, a system of provincial and county councils, which proved to be largely ineffective judicial reform – included equality before the law, impartial hearings, uniform procedures, judicial independence, and trial by jury military reform – service requirements lowered from twenty- five to fifteen years and discipline is relaxed slightly repression in Poland – Poland basically becomes a Russian province under Russian laws and language

63. Russian Revolutionaries – people or groups not satisfied by Alexander’s reforms Alexander Herzen – started a movement called populism, based on the communal life of peasants Vera Zasulich – attempted to assassinate the military governor of St. Petersburg The People’s Will – terrorist group that assassinated Alexander II

64. Alexander III autocratic and repressive rolled back his father’s reforms strengthened secret police and censorship of the press

65. Great Britain – The Second Reform Act (1867) surprisingly the Conservatives in the House of Commons led by Benjamin Disraeli allow a large number of working class males to vote the new prime minister elected however is a liberal, William Gladstone

66. The Great Ministry of Gladstone freedom of religion and class competitive exams replace patronage for civil service voting by secret ballot The Education Act of 1870 – established that the government, not the church would run the elementary schools

67. Disraeli as Prime Minister Public Health Act of 1875 – reaffirmed duty of the state to interfere with private property to protect health and physical well-being Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875 – government becomes actively involved in providing housing for the working class Protection of trade unions and the allowance of picket lines

68. The Irish Question Gladstone, again prime minister in 1880 has to deal with the Irish wanting home rule – Irish control of local government Irish Catholics no longer had to pay for the Anglican Church compensation provided for Irish tenants who were evicted from their land tenant rights established Coercion Act passed to restore law and order to Ireland home rule, supported by Gladstone is defeated over and over again between 1886 and 1914, when the rule was finally passed, but then suspended due to World War I

69. Population Trends and Migration population rises in Europe until 1910 when it levels off population rates continue to rise in underdeveloped nations and areas leading to food shortages people continued to move from rural to urban areas between 1846 and 1932, 50 million Europeans leave their homeland to go to the United States, Canada, South Africa, Australia, Brazil and Argentina

70. New Industries new industries emerge in third quarter of 19th century leading to the Second Industrial Revolution new industries included; steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil Bessemer process – new way to mass produce steel cheaply revolutionizes the steel industry Solway process – uses alkali production to make new soaps, dyes, and plastics electricity changes how people live and travel automobiles Gottlieb Daimler – invents modern internal combustion engine leading to automobiles Henry Ford – American, who through the assembly line made the auto accessible to the masses autos lead to the growth of the oil industry

71. Economic Difficulties bad weather and foreign competition make it tough for European industries in the last quarter of the century stagnation, pockets of unemployment, bad working conditions, strikes and other forms of labor unrest emerge expansion of industry and consumer demand bring Europe out of stagnation by late in the century

72. Ascendancy in the Middle Class social distinctions of the middle class owners and mangers – lived like an aristocracy comfortable small entrepreneurs and professional people (teachers, librarians, shopkeepers) – incomes permitted private homes and large quantities of furniture, education and vacations “white collar workers” – formed lower middle class – petite bourgeoisie – such as secretaries, retail clerks, lower level bureaucrats – spent money on consumer goods that made sure to make them look like middle class tensions mount up between the classes

73. The Redesign of Cities The New Paris Paris rebuilt for political purposes – to discourage riots and creation of thousands of government jobs department stores, office complexes, apartments for the middle class, and a subway are built arts and architecture – Paris Opera, Eiffel Tower, and Basilica of the Sacred Heart built suburbs – to get away from the congestion of the city, many middle-class residents move to communities just outside the urban centers

74. Urban Sanitation cholera – believed to be caused by filth and smell, touched all classes and reached epidemic proportions in 1830’s and 1840’s water and sewer systems – disposed of human waste and provided clean drinking water government involvement in public health private property could be condemned if deemed unhealthy new building regulations

75. Housing Reform / the Middle Class middle class reformers believed cheap adequate housing would alleviate social and political discontent private philanthropy attacked the housing problem

76. Barriers for Women in Late 19th Century property – until last quarter of century – most women in Europe could not own property – everything was in their husband’s name / only Britain changed this in 1882 with the Married Women’s Property Act family law – divorce was difficult to obtain, men had legal control of the children, and contraception and abortion were illegal education could not attend universities until late 19th century absence of secondary education for women women with professional jobs were considered radicals and faced discrimination

77. New Employment for Women new jobs – included secretaries, clerks, and shop assistants / still paid low wages withdrawal from labor force – married women less and less in work force due to: industries preferring unmarried women men living longer social expectations of the married women

78. Working-Class Women putting-out system – manufacturer would purchase material then put it out to the tailors subject to layoffs when demand for products slowed had low wages and subject to exploitation

79. Prostitution women displaced in an overcrowded work force turned to prostitution most large 19th century cities had legal prostitution usually low-skill workers with little education / customers were working class men

80. Middle Class Women domesticity – oversaw virtually all the domestic management and child care religion – assured the religious instruction of their children and prayer was a major part of their daily lives charity – worked with poor youth, poor young women, schools for infants, and societies for visiting the poor sexuality – less sexual repression and due to contraceptives and the cost of having children, smaller families

81. Rise of Feminism obstacles – many women did not support the feminist movement because sensitivity to class and economic interests cared more about national unity and patriotism religious women uncomfortable with radical secularists women’s suffrage in Britain – suffrage – the movement for women to vote Millicent Fawcett – led the moderate National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies Emmeline Pankhurst – led more radical Women’s Social and Political Union, which encouraged strikes, arson, and vandalism women given right to vote in Britain in 1918 political feminism – women granted right to vote in France (after World War II) and Germany (1919) Union of German Women’s Organizations – founded in 1894, supported suffrage, but more concerned about education, social, and political conditions

82. Jewish Citizenship first half of 19th century, Jews in Western Europe began to gain equal citizenship still many Jews could not own land and were subject to discriminatory taxes

83. Russian Jews government to the Jews limited book publications restricted areas where they could live banned them from state service excluded them from higher education pogroms – organized riots against Jewish neighborhoods, supported by the government

84. Opportunities for Jews Western Europe – very open to Jews at all levels; (government, education, intermarriage with Christians) many Jews from Eastern Europe migrate to Western Europe or the United States anti-Semitism – discrimination against Jews, increases in Western Europe during later stages of 19th century, especially in France and Germany

85. Trade Unionism unions allowed in Europe in late 19th century unions looked for the improvement in wages and working conditions unions often engaged in long strikes despite growth of unions, most of Europe’s labor force never unionized

86. Political Parties universal male suffrage brings organized political parties political parties with its workers, newspapers, offices, social life, and discipline mobilize new voters socialist parties were divided on whether to accept social reform or start a revolution

87. The First International British and French trade unionists form the First International, made up of socialists, anarchists and Polish nationalists although short-lived, its updates on labor groups and conditions led to Marxism becoming the most important social strand of socialism

88. Social Reform in Great Britain British socialism – non Marxist – most influential group the Fabian Society- favored gradual, peaceful approach to social reform under Liberal Chancellor David Lloyd George, Britain regulates trade, provides unemployment benefits and health care Conservative – House of Lords upset with the spending of the Liberal- House of Commons in the Parliament

89. French Opportunism Rejected opportunism – participation by socialists in the cabinets is rejected by Congress French socialists form their own party French workers often voted Socialist, but avoided political action non-socialist labor unions looked to strikes as their main labor tactic

90. Social Democrats and Revisionism in Germany Bismarck represses German Social Democratic Party (SPD) anti-socialist laws passed by Reichstag actually strengthen the numbers of the (SPD) passes programs such as accident insurance, disability and old age pensions as a conservative alternative to socialist policies The Erfurt Program – supported Marxist ideas of the collapse of capitalism, but wanted to pursue goals through legislative action, not revolution Revisionism – German socialists ideas of achieving humane social equality without having a revolution founded by Eduard Bernstein critics of Revisionism felt that evolution towards socialism would not work in militaristic, authoritative Germany

91. Industrial Growth in Russia Count Sergei Witte – first Russian minister of communications and later finance minister / wanted to modernize Russian economy through economic development protective tariffs high taxes Russian currency on gold standard steel, iron, and textile industries expand as Trans-Siberian Railroad is completed (1903) social unrest – growth of industry does not improve lives of the peasants, many who have to work on the land of prosperous farmers known as kulaks liberal party formed by the local councils (zemstvos), wanted a constitutional monarchy to further civil liberties and social progress

92. Vladimir Lenin – future leader of the communist revolution led Social Democrats who rejected the German ideas of gradual socialism and called for a revolution Social Democratic Party split into two: Lenin’s faction, the majority or Bolsheviks the moderate faction, the minority or the Mensheviks wanted to unite workers and peasants to overthrow the tsar (idea came about in 1905, but revolution didn’t occur till 1917)

93. The Revolution of 1905 Bloody Sunday – tsar’s troops violently put down a protest leading to ordinary Russians no longer trusting the tsar worker groups called the soviets, not the tsar, basically control city of St. Petersburg Nicholas II issues October Manifesto promising a constitutional government representative body, the Duma, put into place in 1907 – conservative in nature basically kept the power of the tsar in place Stolypin and Rasputin P.A. Stolypin – replaced Witte as finance minister represses socialist rebellion, including execution of rebellious peasants improves agricultural production by encouraging individual ownership assassinated by a Social Revolutionary Grigory Efimovich Rasputin – replaced Stolypin because supposedly his wife could heal the tsar’s hemophiliac son / uncouth and strange, tsar’s power is undermined after 1911

94. Advances in Reading and Primary Education 85% literacy rates in Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, and Scandinavia / far lesser rates in Italy, Spain, Russia, Austria-Hungary and the Balkans liberals and conservatives call for more primary education and literacy

95. Reading Material number of newspapers, books, magazines, mail-order catalogs, and libraries grow rapidly sometimes the publications were mediocre catering to sensationalism, scandal, and pornography still new reading materials led to a popularization of knowledge

96. Auguste Comte developed positivism - a philosophy of human intellectual development based on science wrote The Positive Philosophy in which he argued human thought has three stages (1) theological – physical nature explained by divinity (2) metaphysical – abstract principles explained by operative agencies of nature (3) positive – explanations of nature become matters of exact description of phenomena considered “father” of modern sociology

97. Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species formulates principle of natural selection which explained how species evolved over time together with Alfred Russel Wallace comes up with natural selection – principle of survival of the fittest theory undermines deistic argument for the existence of God in Descent of Man, applies principle of evolution to human beings

98. Science and Ethics Herbert Spencer – British philosopher who believed in social Darwinism, society progresses through competition where the strong defeat the weak Thomas Henry Huxley – strongly supported Darwin, but opposed Spenser, declared the physical process of evolution was at odds with human ethical development

99. Christianity Under Siege / Intellectual Skepticism history – writers question the historical accuracy of the Bible, citing no genuine historical evidence science – Darwin and other scientists doubt the story of Creation citing that the Earth is much older than the Bible morality liberal intellectuals question the cruelty and sacrifices mentioned in the Bible Friedrich Nietzsche – felt Christianity glorified weakness, rather than strength movement towards secularism

100. Conflict Between Church and State Great Britain – churches opposed improvements in government schools because it raised the costs of church schools / Education Act of 1902 – provided state support for religious and non-religious schools France – public schools expanded, religious teachings replaced by civic training and Napoleonic Concordat terminated separating church and state Germany education secularized in 1870-1871 under Bismarck “May Laws” of 1873 – require priests to be educated in German schools and pass state examinations Bismarck’s Kulturkampf “cultural struggle” provokes Catholic resentment against the German state

101. Religious Revival church revivals occur in Britain, Ireland and France cult of the miracle at Lourdes grows

102. Late 19th Century and the Roman Catholic Church Pope Pius IX after Italian unification turns from liberal to conservative issuing Syllabus of Errors – setting Catholic Church against science, philosophy and politics papal infallibility – pope is incapable of error on the issues of faith and morals Pope Leo XIII – Pius successor, moderate who defended religious education and religious control of marriage, but also wanted a corporate society based on moral religious principles rather than socialist or capitalist ideals Pius X – rejected modernism and required all priests to take an anti-Modernist oath

103. Late 19th Century and Islam Anti-Islamic thought Islam considered to be a religion incapable of developing scientific ideas Europeans championed the superiority of the white race and Christianity Eventually some Christian missionaries become more sympathetic to Muslims the Salafi movement along with some Islamic leaders want to modernize Islam, but reject Western principles / its effects are still felt today

104. Science towards the 20th century – the physics revolution few scientists believed they could portray the “truth” about physical reality, instead offering hypothesis or symbolic models of nature x-rays and radiation – major steps in the study of the atom and radioactive materials Max Planck – quantum theory of energy – energy is a series of discrete quantities rather than a continuous stream Albert Einstein – theory of relativity – time and space do not exist separately, but rather as a combined continuum Werner Heisenberg – uncertainty principle – behavior of subatomic particles is a matter of statistical probability rather than of exactly determinable cause and effect

105. Realist and Naturalist Literature of Early 20th Century realist and naturalist writers brought scientific objectivity and observation to their work portraying the hypocrisy and brutality of the bourgeois life famous early realist writers included; Charles Dickens, Honore de Balzac, and George Eliot Gustave Flaubert and Emile Zola Flaubert in Madame Bovary (1857) describes colorless and hapless search of love by a woman Zola wrote of alcoholism, prostitution, adultery, and labor strife Henrik Ibsen and George Bernard Shaw Ibsen in his works strips away the illusory mask of middle-class morality Shaw defended Ibsen and wrote against romanticism and false respectability

106. Modernism Literature of Early 20th Century modernism – critical of middle class society, but more concerned with beauty than social issues Keynesian economics – John Maynard Keynes claimed governments spent their way out of depressions by running deficits to encourage employment and the production of goods famous modernist writers Virginia Woolf – portrayed individuals seeking to make their way in a world with most 19th century social and moral certainties removed Thomas Mann – explored social experience of middle-class Germans James Joyce – wrote famous novel, Ulysses (1922)

107. Modern Art Impressionism concentrated on modern life, using light, color, and the momentary, largely unfocused visual experience of the social landscape famous impressionists included; Edward Manet, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Edgar Degas Post-Impressionism form and structure, rather than the impression of the movement marked these works famous post-impressionists included; Georges Seurat, Paul Cezanne, Vincent Van Gogh, and Paul Gauguin Cubism instead of painting as a window to the real world, painting was an autonomous realm of art itself with no purpose beyond itself famous cubists were Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso

108. Friedrich Nietzsche questioned rational thinking, Christianity, democracy, nationalism, science and progress in The Birth of Tragedy (1872) urged the non- rational aspects of human nature are as noble as rational characteristics declared the death of God critical of racism and anti-Semitism sought the heroism he saw in the Greek Homeric age appealed to feelings and emotions in questioning rationalism

109. Psychoanalysis – Freud and Jung Sigmund Freud’s early theories early studies were on psychic disorders theorized that human beings are sexual from birth through adulthood sexuality as one of the bases of mental order and disorder Freud and dreams – argued that unconscious drives and desires contribute to conscious behavior Freud’s later thought – internal mind is based on the struggle of three entities id – amoral, irrational, driving instincts of sexual gratification superego – the external moral imperatives and expectations imposed on the personality put on by society and culture ego – mediates the impulses of the id with the morals of the superego Carl Jung – Freud’s student who goes away from his teacher’s theories and believes collective memories along with personal experience constitute a human being’s soul / saw value in religion

110. Retreat from Rationalism in Politics Max Weber saw bureaucratization as the basic feature of modern social life people develop their own self-worth from large organizations non-economic factors might account for developments in human history Collective Behavior – the belief in the necessity of collectively shared ideals in society / proponents of this theory differed from Weber

111. Racism – the pseudoscientific theory that biological features of race determine human character and worth Count Arthur de Gobineau – in his four volume Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1854) argued the white Aryan race was being weakened by inferior yellow and black races Houston Stuart Chamberlain – anti-Semite who believed through genetics a superior race could be developed late-century nationalism – new nationality defined itself through race and blood opposed the ideas of liberalism and socialism and led to racism throughout Europe and North America against African and Native-Americans

112. Anti-Semitism and Zionism anti-Semitism seen in Vienna with the Christian Socialist Party, in Germany with the ultraconservative chaplain Adolf Stoecker, and the Dreyfus affair in France Zionist movement – the movement to found a separate Jewish state led by Theodor Herzl / Herzl’s ideas eventually lead to the birth of the state of Israel

113. Antifeminism in Late-Century Thought Famous intellectuals; Charles Darwin, T.H. Huxley, Karl Vogt, Sigmund Freud, Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, Herbert Spencer all believed women were born inferior to men distinguished woman psychoanalysts; Karen Horney and Melanie Klein challenged, especially Freud’s view on women that they would be mothers destined to lead unhappy mental lives

114. New Feminism – Sexual Morality feminists were outraged by Contagious Diseases Act (1864), which in Britain gave the police permission to force women to undergo examinations for venereal diseases (Act was repealed in 1886) Austrian feminists combated the government regulation of prostitution in Germany, feminists form Mothers’ Protection League, which contended that both married and unmarried mothers required the help of the state for pregnancy and child care

115. New Feminism – Women Defining Their Own Lives some women became active in socialist circles Virginia Woolf – wrote A Room of One’s Own (1929) – argued that women should have separate intellectual and psychological philosophies then men World War I – feminism becomes grouped with sexual immorality, and extreme political radicalism leading to repression by such leaders as Lenin and Stalin