1. Chapter 5: Fossil Energy
Energy, Environment,
and Climate
SECOND EDITION by
Richard Wolfson
Chapter 5: Fossil Energy 1

2. A fossil leaf in low-grade coal.
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Figure 5.1 2

3. Formation of an oil deposit in a geological structure called an anticline, in which rock layers have bent upward. The oil originally forms in the source rock, then migrates upward through the porous layer to collect at the top, where it is trapped by the overlying impermeable rock. Natural gas may collect above the oil.
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Figure 5.2 3

4. Typical distribution of refinery products in the United States
Typical distribution of refinery products in the United States. The “other” category includes lubricants, asphalt and road oil, waxes, kerosene, solid fuels, and feedstocks for the manufacture of petrochemicals. The product mix varies with seasonal changes in demand.
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Figure 5.3 4

5. Simplified diagram of the fractional distillation process used in oil refining, showing temperatures at which different products condense out of the distillation column.
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Figure 5.4 5

6. Gas flaring at PetroChina’s Tazhong oil refinery.
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Figure 5.5 6

7. World fossil fuel consumption since 1950
World fossil fuel consumption since The height of each shaded area represents the amount for one of the three fuels, so the top curve is the total fossil fuel consumption. Thus the graph shows that, in the final year plotted, fossil fuels equivalent to more than 10 gigatonnes of oil (Gtoe) were consumed globally.
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Figure 5.6 7

8. Carbon dioxide emission per gigajoule of energy released in the combustion of the three fossil fuels. Natural gas produces just over half the CO2 of coal, making it a more climate-friendly fuel.
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Figure 5.7 8

9. This steam locomotive, built around 1930, is an example of an external combustion engine. The efficiencies of steam locomotives were low, typically in the single digits.
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Figure 5.8 9

10. Diagram of a typical fossil-fueled power plant.
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Figure 5.9 10

11. Cutaway diagram of a four cylinder gasoline engine
Cutaway diagram of a four cylinder gasoline engine. The up-and-down motion of the pistons is converted to rotary motion of the crankshaft. Valves admit the fuel–air mixture and release exhaust gases.
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Figure 5.10 11

12. Energy flows in a typical gasoline-powered car
Energy flows in a typical gasoline-powered car. Thermodynamic losses and friction leave only about 15% of the fuel energy available at the wheels, all of which is dissipated by air resistance, tire friction, and braking. The power needed for accessories runs the air conditioning, lights, audio system, and vehicle electronics.
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Figure 5.11 12

13. Fuel efficiencies of conventional and hybrid vehicles for the 2010 model year; also shown are the conventional and diesel Volkswagen Jetta, which was not available as a hybrid in Note that hybrid SUVs, although more efficient than their conventional counterparts, get fewer miles per gallon than smaller conventional vehicles.
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Figure 5.12 13

14. (a) Engine and electric motor for the Toyota Prius
(a) Engine and electric motor for the Toyota Prius. Gasoline engine is at left; electric motor and generator at right. Engine is rated at 73 kW (98 horsepower), motor at 60 kW (80 horsepower). (b) Diagram of Toyota’s Hybrid Synergy Drive. Energy flows among the different components depending on the driving situation.
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Figure 5.13 14

15. A jet aircraft engine is an example of a continuous combustion gas turbine. At left are a fan and compressor that pressurize incoming air. Some compressed air enters the Combustion chamber, providing oxygen for fuel combustion. The resulting hot gases turn turbines that drive the compressors. As they exit at the right, the exhaust gases also provide some of the jet’s thrust. But in a modern jet engine, most of the thrust comes from so-called bypass air that’s diverted around the combustion chamber.
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Figure 5.14 15

16. Diagram of a combined-cycle power plant
Diagram of a combined-cycle power plant. The steam section is similar to the one illustrated in Figure 5.9, although details of the cooling and exhaust systems aren’t shown. Hot gas from the gas turbine replaces burning fuel in the steam boiler.
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Figure 5.15 16

17. World coal reserves in gigatonnes (billions of metric tons)
World coal reserves in gigatonnes (billions of metric tons). The full height of each bar gives the total coal reserves for the indicated continent, while the lower part shows reserves for the listed country, which has the most coal in that continent.
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Figure 5.16 17

18. World oil reserves, presented as for coal in Figure 5
World oil reserves, presented as for coal in Figure 5.16, with the Middle East broken out separately. North America is shown twice: The United States has the
largest conventional reserves in North America (left), but if the Canadian tar sands are included, Canada has almost as much oil as Saudi Arabia (right).
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Figure 5.17 18

19. U.S. oil imports have risen substantially to compensate for declining domestic production. The two large drops are the result of oil supply disruptions, price increases, and economic recessions, including the Great Recession of 2008–2010.
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Figure 5.18 19

20. Directional drilling taps multiple oil deposits from a single wellhead
Directional drilling taps multiple oil deposits from a single wellhead. This technology not only produces more oil, but also reduces the environmental impact at the surface.
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Figure 5.19 20

21. 5.20 Offshore drilling rigs produce some 30% of the world’s oil.
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Figure 5.20 21

22. (a) Tar sands from Alberta, Canada
(a) Tar sands from Alberta, Canada. (b) It takes 2 tons of sand to make a barrel of oil. This shovel suggests the enormous scale of tar-sand extraction.
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Figure 5.21 22

23. China’s 8% annual increase in oil consumption is an example of exponential growth. If this rate were to hold steady through 2050, China’s current consumption of roughly 9 million barrels per day would grow nearly 30 times, to more than 200 million barrels per day—more than double the current global daily consumption rate.
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Figure 5.22 23

24. Equation 5.1 24 Energy Environment and Climate, 2nd Edition
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Equation 5.1 24

25. Equation 5.2 25 Energy Environment and Climate, 2nd Edition
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Equation 5.2 25

26. An idealized bell-shaped curve for oil production known as Hubbert’s peak. Production peaks when half the resource has been exhausted; thereafter, the production rate declines as the remaining oil reserves become more difficult and expensive to extract.
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Figure 5.23 26

27. One of the more sophisticated projections of future oil production is a 2010 study from Kuwait University’s College of Engineering and Petroleum; it has world production peaking around The study analyzed 47 oil-producing countries and incorporated multiple Hubbert like models to reflect changes in oil-extraction technology, government regulations, and economic changes. Black dots represent actual data; solid curve is the model projection.
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Figure 5.24 27

28. Gasoline prices vary dramatically as a result of different tax policies. European countries have the highest prices because of taxes intended to encourage energy efficiency. The dark portion of each bar shows the basic gasoline cost; the lighter area indicates taxes. Some major oil producers subsidize gasoline rather than taxing it, hence the negative taxes for Kuwait, Nigeria, and Venezuela.
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Figure 5.25 28