1. The Age of Mass Politics 1815-1915

2. Overview 1815-1848ConservatismLiberalismNationalism The Revolutions of 1848 The Age of RealPolitik (1848-1871) The Rise of Socialism The Age of Mass Politics (1871-1915)

3. Conservatism Protection of the status quoProtection of the status quo –The Concert of Europe They were all singing the same tune They were all singing the same tune –First meeting in Vienna 1814 »To settle the questions of territory and politics after Napoleon »France, England, Austria, Russia –Territorial changes that reflected the personal interests of the leaders involved Other meetingsOther meetings –1818 The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle –1819 Protocol of Troppau –1822 Congress of Verona Rebellions in the AmericasRebellions in the Americas –Europe lost control –The Monroe Doctrine –No more meetings after 1822 Failed as an international forceFailed as an international force

4. Conservatism Russia 1825 Alexander I dies suddenly Young liberal thinkers hoped to see Constantine take the throne Instead Nicholas I became Tsar Decembrist Revolt

5. Conservatism France (1815-1830)France (1815-1830) –P.M. Talleyrand suggested Louis XVIII Old and in poor health; he was unexciting, safe, and legitimateOld and in poor health; he was unexciting, safe, and legitimate Signed the CharterSigned the Charter –Maintained principles from the revolution »Equality before the law »Religious freedom (Catholicism is state religion) »The Napoleonic Code »Organization of the county by departments »And property rights from the revolution and Napoleonic periods –Only large property owners could vote »Elected a two-house Assembly »France was returned to 1792 borders

6. Conservatism France (1815-1830)France (1815-1830) –1815: white terror –Napoleon returns for 100 days Louis flees and returns after Napoleon’s final defeatLouis flees and returns after Napoleon’s final defeat –Reaction continued Catholic attacks on ProtestantsCatholic attacks on Protestants 1820: Louis nephew was assassinated1820: Louis nephew was assassinated –More repression –Charles X Spokesperson for the conservative aristocracySpokesperson for the conservative aristocracy –Reduced interest on public debt »Hurt the middle class who had loaned money to the state –Rumors that he planned to rescind constitutional limits on his authority –Appointed a conservative chief minister –“July Revolution” of 1830

7. Conservatism German States (1815-1830)German States (1815-1830) –The German Confederation German nationalism dominated universities and artistic leadersGerman nationalism dominated universities and artistic leaders –Students formed clubs collectively called Burschenschaft –Austria is leading German State Metternich suspicious; wants to prevent German unityMetternich suspicious; wants to prevent German unity –Actions of the Burschenschaft were very limited; occasional demonstrations or marches; mostly they wrote 1819 a member of the Burschenschaft murdered and extremely conservative public figure1819 a member of the Burschenschaft murdered and extremely conservative public figure –Carlsbad Decrees »Outlawed the Burschenschaft »Applied censorship throughout the German states »University students and professors would be watched »Teachers were blacklisted

8. Conservatism AustriaAustria –Metternich Except for Russia, the Austrian Empire was the most populous European stateExcept for Russia, the Austrian Empire was the most populous European state –Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary each had own language –Other minority languages: Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, Slovakian and others Controlled parts of Northern Italy; Vienna is the Capital of the Austrian EmpireControlled parts of Northern Italy; Vienna is the Capital of the Austrian Empire Idea of government was of a benevolent ruling house, the Habsburgs, who had no special connection to the people it ruledIdea of government was of a benevolent ruling house, the Habsburgs, who had no special connection to the people it ruled –Metternich remains in control until 1848

9. Conservatism England (1815-1832)England (1815-1832) –Grain Controversy Corn LawsCorn Laws –Hurt consumers (kept bread prices high) –Hurt manufacturers (kept wages high) After 1815 again possible to import grainAfter 1815 again possible to import grain –New legislation forbade imports unless prices skyrocketed

10. Conservatism England (1815-1832)England (1815-1832) –Bad economic times for laborers; high unemployment 1819 the Peterloo Massacre1819 the Peterloo Massacre –Peaceful demonstration –Local authorities overreacted »Killed 11 and wounded about 400 –New laws passed restricting public meetings –Representation in Parliament No changes in electoral districts since before the Industrial RevolutionNo changes in electoral districts since before the Industrial Revolution –“virtually represented” »Rotten boroughs »Pocket boroughs –Only 1 out of every 15 males could vote Reform Bill of 1832Reform Bill of 1832

11. Liberalism CharacteristicsCharacteristics –Product of the Enlightenment Liberal-minded people, members of upper middle class, often professionalsLiberal-minded people, members of upper middle class, often professionals Believed in constitutions and representative governmentBelieved in constitutions and representative government Protection of human rights (freedom of expression and religion and equality before the law)Protection of human rights (freedom of expression and religion and equality before the law)

12. Liberalism CharacteristicsCharacteristics –Not democrats Did not trust the massesDid not trust the masses Did not favor universal male suffrageDid not favor universal male suffrage Strongly opposed to revolutionStrongly opposed to revolution Did not promote voting rights for womenDid not promote voting rights for women Preferred laissez-faire economics and disapproved of unionsPreferred laissez-faire economics and disapproved of unions –Government should stay out of business except to protect private property and maintain an atmosphere conducive to manufacturing and trade

13. Liberalism CharacteristicsCharacteristics –Secular world view Rejected church teachingsRejected church teachings Distrust of the militaryDistrust of the military Change should come through legislationChange should come through legislation –Trusted science and education, human improvement and progress

14. Liberalism EnglandEngland –Reform Bill of 1832 Doubled the number of men who could voteDoubled the number of men who could vote Did eliminate some smaller boroughs and seats reallocated to the new industrial centersDid eliminate some smaller boroughs and seats reallocated to the new industrial centers –1838 Anti-Corn Law League 1845 Irish Potato famine1845 Irish Potato famine Tory Prime Minister Robert PeelTory Prime Minister Robert Peel –Believed that without reform there would be rebellion »Reform led to Peel fall from office »Irish peasants did not really benefit from reform because of British landlords »Crop failures in 1848 and 1851 resulted in mass Irish migration (mostly to U.S.) –Repeal did prove the ability of the British gov’t to compromise –Also committed England to international economic system depending on foreign trade

15. Liberalism France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 –Charles X dismisses Chamber of Deputies and calls for new elections Liberals wonLiberals won –Charles issues four July Ordinances First dissolved the newly elected Chamber before it metFirst dissolved the newly elected Chamber before it met Second censored the pressSecond censored the press Third greatly reduced the franchise that excluded upper middle classThird greatly reduced the franchise that excluded upper middle class Fourth called for new elections based on the revised franchiseFourth called for new elections based on the revised franchise –Mobs took to the street setting up barricades and flying the tricolor flag of the revolution King’s soldiers were targets and refused to support the kingKing’s soldiers were targets and refused to support the king Charles abdicated and fled to EnglandCharles abdicated and fled to England

16. Liberalism France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 – July Monarchy On recommendation of Marquis de Lafayette, France replaced Charles with his cousin Louis Philippe, Duke of OrleansOn recommendation of Marquis de Lafayette, France replaced Charles with his cousin Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans –Careful to play down “royal image” –Dressed in a business suit and carried an umbrella –Ruled for 18 years until 1848 Louis was conservative even though the government maintained an appearance of liberalismLouis was conservative even though the government maintained an appearance of liberalism –Wanted support of upper bourgeoisie, catered to them Reformers and democrats were disappointedReformers and democrats were disappointed –1840: Egypt incident –French workers demanded voting rights

17. Liberalism France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 – February 1848 Workers rally: electoral reformWorkers rally: electoral reform –Premier Francois Guizot forbid the rally –People still gathered and the army refused to disperse the crowd »King dismissed Guizot, but army still fired on the crowd killing about 40 people »Street fighting resulted Louis Philippe abdicatedLouis Philippe abdicated –Chamber of Deputies sets up provisional government »Made up of republicans and one socialist: Louis Blanc

18. Liberalism France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 – Actions of the provisional gov’t Universal male suffrageUniversal male suffrage End of slavery in the coloniesEnd of slavery in the colonies Abolition of the death penaltyAbolition of the death penalty –Country divided politically OrleanistsOrleanists LegitimistsLegitimists Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of NapoleonLouis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon Republicans also dividedRepublicans also divided Socialists: followers of Louis Blanc demanded gov’t help to provide jobsSocialists: followers of Louis Blanc demanded gov’t help to provide jobs

19. Liberalism France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848France: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 – Provisional Government Opened National workshopsOpened National workshops Agreed to 10-hour workdayAgreed to 10-hour workday Held elections in April 1848Held elections in April 1848 –Conservatives were big winners »Rural peasant vote: anti-liberal, anti-workshops, and anti-taxes –Violence escalated Provisional gov’t closed workshopsProvisional gov’t closed workshops –Bloody June Days General CavaignacGeneral Cavaignac –Provisional government drafts new constitution Presidential elections scheduled before it was finishedPresidential elections scheduled before it was finished –Louis Napoleon Bonaparte won by huge majority

20. Nationalism GreeceGreece –Movement led by Ypsilanti in 1821 failed Western romantic writers took up the causeWestern romantic writers took up the cause –Turks continued to alienate the West Island massacreIsland massacre Executed the Christian leader of ConstantinopleExecuted the Christian leader of Constantinople –Treaty of London 1827 England, France, and Russia support Greek independenceEngland, France, and Russia support Greek independence Threatened Turkey with military actionThreatened Turkey with military action Sent a naval forced that destroyed the Turkish fleetSent a naval forced that destroyed the Turkish fleet –Greek independence in 1832

21. Nationalism BelgiumBelgium –Kingdom of the Netherlands Constitutional monarchy, ruled by House of Orange (same as England)Constitutional monarchy, ruled by House of Orange (same as England) Economically successfulEconomically successful Unpopular politicallyUnpopular politically –Dutch king was absolutist, Belgians were virtually independent –Belgians were Catholic; Dutch were Calvinists –Belgians spoke French or Flemish; resented being forced to use Dutch as official language

22. Nationalism BelgiumBelgium –1830 Belgian leaders asked for self-government Dutch response militant, but eventually withdrewDutch response militant, but eventually withdrew Belgium proclaimed independence and began to draft constitutionBelgium proclaimed independence and began to draft constitution Belgium became a perpetually neutral countryBelgium became a perpetually neutral country –Defended by Britain and France Constitutional monarchy, two-house parliament elected by 1 out of every 30 malesConstitutional monarchy, two-house parliament elected by 1 out of every 30 males

23. Nationalism Germany: Philosophies and RevolutionGermany: Philosophies and Revolution – Ideas of the Philosophy of the History of Mankind J.G. HerderJ.G. Herder –German ways are different from others – Volkgeist : spirit of the people »Romantic idea »Emphasized genius and intuition over reason »Stressed differences rather than similarities »German customs and traditions must be kept pure –Opposite of Enlightenment ideas; certain truths are universal

24. Nationalism Germany: Philosophies and RevolutionGermany: Philosophies and Revolution –Other German writers urged unity based on language, history, and folk traditions The Brothers GrimmThe Brothers Grimm G.W.F. HegelG.W.F. Hegel –Reality is a process of endless change; dialectic –Tendency of the human mind to proceed through reaction of opposites »Thesis, antithesis, synthesis Leopold von RankeLeopold von Ranke –Mission to create a purely German state Friedrich ListFriedrich List –For a nation to develop its own culture it must have cities, factories, and capital of its own; tariffs to protect new industries

25. Nationalism Germany: Philosophies and Revolution Germany: Philosophies and Revolution – King of Prussia, Frederick William IV 1848 promised a constitution 1848 promised a constitution – The Frankfurt Assembly Debated the question of German unity Debated the question of German unity – Problems » Small states treasured independence No one wanted Austria or Prussia to dominate minor states » Junkers: East Prussian Contempt for the rest of Germany Considered by central and western states as backward Not actually backward Popularly elected parliament Zollverein (free tax union)

26. Nationalism Germany: Philosophies and RevolutionGermany: Philosophies and Revolution –Berlin Assembly Different from Frankfurt AssemblyDifferent from Frankfurt Assembly All Prussian affairAll Prussian affair LiberalLiberal –Weakness of the Frankfurt Assembly No aspect of national unityNo aspect of national unity –Professional people: lawyers and gov’t officials, Catholic clergy, and businessmen No connection with the massesNo connection with the masses –Schleswig and Holstein German states at the base of DenmarkGerman states at the base of Denmark Denmark attempted to annex Schleswig; Frankfurt had to as Prussia for help in defending GermansDenmark attempted to annex Schleswig; Frankfurt had to as Prussia for help in defending Germans

27. Nationalism Germany: Philosophies and Revolution Germany: Philosophies and Revolution – Frankfurt central question: how to define Germany? “big” or “little” Germany “big” or “little” Germany Two important docs Two important docs – Declaration of the Rights of the German People » Emphasized individual rights (freedom of religion, press, and assembly) Emphasized “German” rights (not human rights) – German Constitution that excluded Austria » Failed to create unification

28. Nationalism Italy: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 Congress of Vienna solidified patchwork region Emerging nationalistic groups.

29. Nationalism Italy: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848Italy: Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 – Resorgimento A resurgence of Italian spirit or identityA resurgence of Italian spirit or identity –Carbonari: secret society of Italian nationalists Guiseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) Italian nationalist Guiseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) Italian nationalist –Fought for liberal and romantic reasons Founded new organization - Young ItalyFounded new organization - Young Italy –focused on revolution and spreading brotherhood of free peoples –felt revolt must come from below –attempted revolutions 1834––36, 1844; all failed 1848–– two outbursts of nationalism1848–– two outbursts of nationalism –Piedmont-Sardinia tried to take advantage of Austria’s vulnerability and enlarge its holdings in northern Italy –Many patriots joined the cause –Rome »Assassination of high church official »Pope flees Rome and radicals declare a new government with Mazzini as one of three rulers Both efforts are defeatedBoth efforts are defeated

30. Nationalism Austrian Empire Violence in Vienna––Metternich’s flight Italian rebellion Magyar revolt––led by Kossuth Pan-Slav meeting in Prague Jellachich and Serb-Croation army against Magyars Abdication of Ferdinand––Francis Joseph Russian Army to restore order in Hungary