1. The Transformation of Europe
Chapter 24
The Transformation of Europe

2. R. H. Bainton The Reformation of the 16c
Thus, the papacy emerged as something between an Italian city-state and European power, without forgetting at the same time the claim to be the vice-regent of Christ. The Pope often could not make up his mind whether he was the successor of Peter or of Caesar. Such vacillation had much to do with the rise and success of the Protestant Reformation.

3. The Protestant Reformation
Martin Luther ( ) attacks Roman Catholic church practices, 1517
Indulgences: preferential pardons for charitable donors
Writes Ninety-Five Theses, rapidly reproduced with new printing technology
Excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1521
1520s-1530s dissent spread throughout Germany and Switzerland

4. The Demand for Reform Luther’s expanded critique
Closure of monasteries
Translations of Bible into vernacular
End of priestly authority, especially the Pope
Return to biblical text for authority
German princes interested
Opportunities for assertion of local control
Support for reform spreads throughout Germany

5. Caricature of Pope Alexander VI by Martin Luther, 1545

6. The Spread of Lutheranism

7. The Peasant Revolt

8. Reform outside Germany
Switzerland, Low Countries follow Germany
England: King Henry VIII (r ) has conflict with Pope over requested divorce
England forms its own church by 1560
France: John Calvin ( ) codifies Protestant teachings while in exile in Geneva
Scotland, Netherlands, Hungary also experience reform movements

9. Protestant Reformers John Calvin
A French priest and lawyer, who like Luther, believed that Christians could only reach heaven through faith in God.
Unlike Luther, he promoted predestination, the belief that God had determined before the beginning of time who would achieve salvation.
Wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion, codifying Protestant teachings.

10. Reformation Europe (Late 16c)

11. The Catholic Reformation
Roman Catholic church reacts
Refining doctrine, missionary activities to Protestants, attempt to renew spiritual activity
Council of Trent ( ) periodic meetings to discuss reform
Called by Pope Paul III, the goal was to end church abuses and set up schools to educate clergy
Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded by St. Ignatius Loyola ( )
Rigorous religious and secular education
Effective missionaries
spread Christianity to Asia, Africa and the Americas

12. Witch Hunts
Most prominent in regions of tension between Catholics and Protestants
Late 15th century development in belief in Devil and human assistants
16th-17th centuries approximately 110,000 people put on trial, some 60,000 put to death
Vast majority females, usually single, widowed
Held accountable for crop failures, miscarriages, etc.
New England: 234 witches tried, 36 hung

13. Witches by Hans Baldung Grien, Woodcut, 1508
Burning of three witches in Baden, Switzerland 1585
Punishments for witchcraft in 16th-century Germany
An image of suspected witches being hanged in England, published in 1655.

14. Divine Right:
- According to this way of thinking, the king is an agent of God, and his authority to rule comes directly from God.

15. Phillip II Believe he ruled by divine right.
Married Queen Mary I of England (“Bloody Mary”)
Strong financial supporter of the Spanish Inquisition
Persecuted Protestants, especially the Calvinists in the Netherlands

16. Religious Wars
Protestants and Roman Catholics fight in France ( )
1588 Philip II of Spain attacks England to force return to Catholicism
English destroy Spanish ships by sending flaming unmanned ships into the fleet
Netherlands rebel against Spain, gain independence by 1610

17. William of Orange
Led a revolt against Phillip II, using guerilla warfare - sudden unexpected attacks carried out by an unofficial military group or groups that are trying to change the government by assaults on the military.

18. Protestant Churches in France (Late 16c)

19. The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1645)
Holy Roman emperor attempts to force Bohemians to return to Roman Catholic Church
All of Europe becomes involved in conflict
Principal battleground: Germany
Political, economic issues involved
Approximately one-third of German population destroyed

21. Loss of German Lives in 30 Years’ War

22. The Consolidation of Sovereign States
Emperor Charles V (r ) attempts to revive Holy Roman Empire as strong center of Europe
Through marriage, political alliances
Ultimately fails
Protestant Reformation provides cover for local princes to assert greater independence
Foreign opposition from France, Ottoman Empire
Unlike China, India, Ottoman Empire, Europe does not develop as single empire, rather individual states
Charles V abdicates to monastery in Spain

23. Europe in 1559

24. The Hapsburg Family
Charles I of the Hapsburg family, an old German family who ruled Austria for over 600 years was, inherited not only Spain, but all of the Holy Roman Empire (where he was Charles V), giving him more land than any other ruler since Charlemagne in 800.

25. The Hapsburg Family
Charles V stepped down and divided his great empire in 1556.
Charles’ son Phillip II (right) received Spain and all its possessions, while Charles V’s brother Ferdinand I became the Holy Roman Emperor.

26. The Spanish
Empire
Decline of
Imbalance of Trade
High Taxes,
Inflation,
Economy:
Colonial
Piracy
Actions of Phillip II:
Loss of Netherlands
Expensive Wars,
Actions of
Too Expensive
Religious
Charles V:
Wars

27. The New Monarchs
Italy well-developed as economic power through trade, manufacturing, finance
Yet England, France, and Spain surge ahead in 16th century, innovative new tax revenues
England: Henry VIII
Fines and fees for royal services; confiscated monastic holdings
France: Louis XI, Francis I
New taxes on sales, salt trade

28. The Spanish Inquisition
Founded by Fernando and Isabel in 1478
Original task: search for secret Christian practitioners of Judaism or Islam, later search for Protestants
Spread to Spanish holdings outside Iberian peninsula in western hemisphere
Imprisonment, executions
Intimidated nobles who might have considered Protestantism
Archbishop of Toledo imprisoned

29. Constitutional States
England and Netherlands develop institutions of popular representation
England: constitutional monarchy
Netherlands: republic
English Civil War,
Begins with opposition to royal taxes
Religious elements: Anglican church favors complex ritual, complex church hierarchy, opposed by Calvinist Puritans
King Charles I and parliamentary armies clash
King loses, is beheaded in 1649

30. The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689)
Puritans take over, becomes a dictatorship
Monarchy restored in 1660, fighting resumes
Resolution with bloodless coup called Glorious Revolution
King James II deposed, daughter Mary and husband William of Orange take throne
Shared governance between crown and parliament

31. The Dutch Republic
King Philip II of Spain attempts to suppress Calvinists in Netherlands, 1566
Large-scale rebellion follows, by 1581 Netherlands declares independence
Based on a representative parliamentary system

32. “Paris is well worth a Mass”
France
By the late 1600’s, France had replaced Spain as the most powerful European nation.
In 1589, a Huguenot leader and Bourbon prince (a royal family prominent in Europe) inherited the French throne as Henry IV. Knowing a Protestant would have trouble ruling a predominantly Catholic land, he became Catholic.

33. Absolute Monarchies Theory of Divine Right of Kings
French absolutism designed by Cardinal Richelieu (under King Louis XIII, )
Destroyed castles of nobles, crushed aristocratic conspiracies
Built bureaucracy to bolster royal power base
Ruthlessly attacked Calvinists

34. Cardinal Richelieu
Henry IV was murdered in His eight year old son, Louis XIII inherited the throne and chose Cardinal Richelieu to be his chief minister.
Richelieu subdued or defeated two groups that did not bow to royal authority: the nobles and the Protestant Huguenots.
He also created a strong bureaucracy by setting up intendants – regional representatives to the king.

35. Louis XIV (The “Sun King,” 1643-1715)
L’état, c’est moi: “The State – that’s me.”
Magnificent palace at Versailles, 1670s, becomes his court
Largest building in Europe
1,400 fountains
25,000 fully grown trees transplanted
Power centered in court, important nobles pressured to maintain presence

36. Louis XIV
Inheriting the throne in 1643 as a five year old child, Louis XIV ruled France for 72 years.
He further strengthened the monarchy and took the sun as the symbol of his power.

37. The Sun King During his reign, Louis:
Expanded the bureaucracy, appointing officials to collect taxes, recruit soldiers, and carry out his rule in the provinces.
Built the lavish, and expensive Palace of Versailles outside of Paris.
Organized a highly disciplined army, the strongest in Europe.
Persecuted the Protestant Huguenots, depriving the nation of many of its hardest working and prosperous citizens.

38. Palace of Versailles

39. Palace of Versailles – Hall of Mirrors

40. Palace of Versailles – The King’s Bedchamber

41. Jacques Bossuet
Louis’s claim to absolute power was strengthened by a court preacher, Bishop Jacques Bossuet who argued that the king was entitled to unquestioning obedience.

42. The War of Spanish Succession
In 1700, the last Spanish Hapsburg king (Carlos II) died and Louis ensured that his grandson Phillip V inherited the throne.
The surrounding allies, specifically England saw this as a threat to the balance of power and began the War of the Spanish Succession which carried on until 1713 when France agreed to sign the Treaty of Utrecht.
This stated that Phillip could remain on the throne, but that the Spanish crown and the French crown must remain separate and never unite.
The treaty also gave French lands in North America to England (in Newfoundland and Maine).

43. On to England…

44. The Tudors
Henry VIII
The first Tudor king was Henry VII, who made England prosperous and stable.
His son Henry VIII, established a new official church for England, the Anglican Church, or the Church of England, when the Roman Catholic Pope would not grant him the divorce he wanted.

46. Mary I
Mary I, the oldest daughter of Henry VIII, came to the throne in 1533 to become the first reigning queen of England.
A devout Catholic, Mary tried to destroy the Anglican Church that her father had founded, but most of her subjects were Protestant and did not support her.
By burning hundreds at the stake, she earned herself the nickname “Bloody Mary.”

47. Elizabeth I
When Mary I died in 1558, her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth I became queen.
Elizabeth I worked hard to establish a relationship with Parliament and was mostly well liked.
Elizabeth I was the fifth and final monarch of the House of Tudor.

48. Highlights of Elizabeth I
Under Elizabeth I, England became more than an island nation, but a world power.
Elizabeth never married nor had children, which earned her the nickname The Virgin Queen.
Had her cousin, Mary Queen of Scots captured and imprisoned to ensure that she could not seize her throne.
Elizabeth learned of a plot between Mary and Phillip II and had Mary Stuart beheaded in 1587.

49. Highlights of Elizabeth I
In reaction, in 1588 Phillip II launched a fleet of 130 ships toward England. This was the Spanish Armada, also known as the Invincible Armada.
The Spanish Armada was defeated by the English.
Elizabeth widened her persecution of Catholics to include all non-Anglicans, Protestants included.
Her favorite motto was video et taceo ("I see and keep silent").

50. Detail from the The Family of Henry VIII: An Allegory of the Tudor Succession, c1572, attributed to Lucas de Heere
The Elizabethan Era

51. The Elizabethan Era
The height of the English Renaissance, which ushered in the blossoming of English literature, poetry, science and technology.
William Shakespeare
Sir Francis Drake
Sir Walter Raleigh

52. The Stuarts
The son of Mary Queen of Scots, King of Scotland James I succeeded Elizabeth, bringing England and Scotland under the same ruler.
King James was from the Stuart family, not the Tudors, so this ushered in the next dynasty.

53. King James I
The "Golden Age" of Elizabethan literature and drama continued.
King James Bible - Its popularity stems from its rich language from the age of Shakespeare.
James pushed to dissolve Parliament and rule alone.
Clashed with the Puritans, who hoped to “purify” the church by eliminating catholic rituals.

54. Charles I
Parliament presented Charles with a document called the Petition of Right.
This declared:
The King could not tax the people without Parliament’s consent.
He could not declare martial law.
He could not board soldiers in private homes during peacetime.
He could not imprison a person without a specific charge.
Although Charles signed the document, he ignored its agreements and disbanded Parliament for 11 years.

55. Charles I Long Parliament Enemies imprisoned without trial High taxes
Conflict with Puritans
Irish & Scottish conflicts
Conflict with Parliament

56. English Civil War ( )
Those who supported the king included Anglicans, Roman Catholics and nobles. They were called royalists, or more commonly, Cavaliers.
Those who supported Parliament included Puritans and other non-Anglican Protestants. They were called Roundheads, because of the close haircuts of the Puritan soldiers.

57. Oliver Cromwell
The leader of the Puritans was Oliver Cromwell, who organized his troops into a powerful army known as New Model Army, defeated Charles in 1645.
The now Cromwell controlled Parliament was purged of all Charles supporters. This Parliament was known as the Rump Parliament.

58. The Rump Parliament
Abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords and the official Church of England.
Proclaimed England a commonwealth, or republic for the first time in English history.
Tried Charles for treason, finding him guilty and beheaded him in front of his palace in 1649.
Charles’ son Charles II fled to France and Oliver Cromwell took control of England as Lord Protector.

59. The Restoration
In 1660, after much debate and with the army’s support, Parliament invited Charles II, the Stuart son of Charles I, to return to England.
When the monarchy was restored, this is known as the Restoration. This refers to not only the return of the monarchy, but also a rebirth of English culture, not seen since the Elizabethan era.

60. James II
With no heir, it appeared that Charles’s younger brother James, a Roman Catholic, would succeed him.
The two parties of Parliament had very conflicting views about this.
The Tories, believed that James had a hereditary right to rule, yet they supported the Anglican Church.
The Whigs claimed the right to deny the throne to James because they could not accept a Catholic king and they supported a stronger parliament that could make such decisions.

61. The European States System
No imperial authority to mediate regional disputes
Peace of Westphalia (1648) after Thirty Years’ War
European states to be recognized as sovereign and equal
Religious, other domestic affairs protected
Warfare continues: opposition to French expansion, Seven Years’ War
Balance of Power tenuous
Innovations in military technology proceed rapidly

62. Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

63. Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648

64. Population Growth and Urbanization
Rapidly growing population due to Columbian Exchange
Improved nutrition
Role of the potato (considered an aphrodisiac in 16th and 17th centuries)
Replaces bread as staple of diet
Better nutrition reduces susceptibility to plague
Epidemic disease becomes insignificant for overall population decline by mid-17th century

65. Population Growth in Europe

66. Urbanization

67. Early Capitalism
Private parties offer goods and services on a free market
Own means of production
Private initiative, not government control
Supply and demand determines prices
Banks, stock exchanges develop in early modern period
Joint-Stock Companies (English East India Company, VOC)
Relationship with empire-building
Medieval guilds discarded in favor of “putting-out” system

68. Impact of Capitalism on the Social Order
Rural life
Improved access to manufactured goods
Increasing opportunities in urban centers begins depletion of the rural population
Inefficient institution of serfdom abandoned in western Europe, retained in Russia until 19th century
Nuclear families replace extended families
Gender changes as women enter income-earning work force

69. Capitalism and Morality
Adam Smith ( ) argued that capitalism would ultimately improve society as a whole
But major social change increases poverty in some sectors
Rise in crime
Witch-hunting a possible consequence of capitalist tensions and gender roles

70. The Copernican Universe
Reconception of the Universe
Reliance on 2nd-century Greek scholar Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria
Motionless earth inside nine concentric spheres
Christians understand heaven as last sphere
Difficulty reconciling model with observed planetary movement
Heliocentric Theory
1543 Nicholas Copernicus of Poland breaks theory
Notion of moving Earth challenges Christian doctrine

71. "Astronomer Copernicus: Conversation with God" painted by Jan Matejko (1872)

72. The Scientific Revolution
Johannes Kepler (Germany, ) and Galileo Galilei (Italy, ) reinforce Copernican model
Isaac Newton ( ) revolutionizes study of physics
Rigorous challenge to church doctrines

73. 'Galilo facing the Roman Inquisition'', 1857 painting by Cristiano Banti

74. Briefly stated, my three laws of motion are:
An object in motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by a net force.
Force equals mass multiplied by acceleration.
To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Sir Isaac Newton at 46 in Godfrey Kneller's 1689 portrait

75. The Enlightenment
Trend away from Aristotelian philosophy and Church doctrine in favor of rational thought and scientific analysis
John Locke (England, ), Baron de Montesquieu (France, ) attempt to discover natural laws of politics
Center of Enlightenment: France, philosophes
Voltaire ( ), caustic attacks on Roman Catholic church: écrasez l’infame, “erase the infamy”
Deism increasingly popular

76. John Locke Believed that:
- All people possess natural rights, which include life, liberty and property.
- People form governments to protect these rights.
- If a government does not protect these rights, people have the right to overthrow it.
Went on to inspire: Thomas Jefferson’s writing of the D.O.I. & the French revolutionaries!

77. The Theory of Progress
Assumption that Enlightenment thought would ultimately lead to human harmony, material wealth
Decline in authority of traditional organized religion

78. Reason:
- the mental powers concerned with forming conclusions, judgments, or inferences; sound judgment; good sense.

79. Rene Descartes
Frenchman Rene Descartes challenged the idea that new knowledge should be made to fit existing traditional ideas. He believed that reason, rather than tradition, should be the way to discover truth.

80. “I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am”
Portrait of René Descartes by Frans Hals (1648)

81. Natural Laws:
Laws that govern human behavior.

82. How did we get to the Enlightenment?
Renaissance
Reason
The Enlightenment
Scientific Revolution
Natural Laws

83. Leading Thinkers of The Enlightenment

84. Baron de Montesquieu French thinker of the 1700’s who wrote that:
Government should be divided into 3 branches
This separation would prevent tyranny by creating checks and balances

85. Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet)
French thinker of the 1700’s who wrote satire of the French monarchy, the nobility and the Catholic Church.
He was especially critical of intolerance and attempts to suppress personal freedoms.
In defense of freedom of speech he wrote “I may disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”
In his novel Candide, he took on prejudice, bigotry and oppressive government.

86. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
French philosopher of the 1700’s who:
wrote The Social Contract
Believed that people are naturally good but are corrupted by the evils of society
In forming govt’s, people choose to give up their own interests for the common good.
Believed that the majority should always work for the common good.

87. Effects of the Enlightenment
People began to question the status quo.
Government and church leaders started a campaign of censorship
Many were imprisoned, including Voltaire.
Enlightenment thinkers books were banned and burned.
Enlightenment ideas inspired a sense of individualism and personal freedom
Led to the growth of democracy and a sense of nationalism
Helped contribute to an age of revolution.

88. The English Bill of Rights
Parliament would choose who ruled the country.
The ruler was subject to all laws and could not suspend or proclaim any law without Parliament’s approval.
The ruler could not impose taxes or keep an army during peacetime without parliament approval.
Parliament would meet regularly and the ruler could not interfere with the election of its members.
The Bill of Rights guaranteed free speech for members of Parliament.
Any citizen could petition the government for relief of injustice. No citizen could be forced to pay unfairly high bail or face cruel or unusual punishment.

89. Toleration Act of 1689
Granted dissenters, such as Puritans and Quakers, limited toleration.
This officially gave some religious freedom to all non-Anglican citizens, except Roman Catholics and Jews.

90. The Act of Union
In 1707, The Act of Union was passed, uniting Scotland and England into one kingdom, known as Great Britain.
This ended up benefiting the economy and military power of both countries.
The Scottish town of Glasgow grew from a fishing village to a major commercial port.
The Universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow became major institutions of learning.

91. Constitutional Monarchy
Prime Minister
Cabinet
Parliament

92. And Now Onto Russia…

93. Russian Isolation Asian rather than Western culture
Cultural Causes
Asian rather than Western culture
Eastern orthodox religion rather than Roman Catholic or Protestant
Hindered Communication
Mongol Rule
Contact via Constantinople
Cyrillic Alphabet

94. Russian Isolation Limited Trade & Contact
Geographic Causes
Landlocked: surrounded by plains, other powers (Ottoman’s, China, Holy Roman Empire)
No major rivers into seas for trade
Limited Trade & Contact

95. The Pendulum of Russian History
Pro-West For Progress & Change Encourage New Ideas, Technologies, etc.
Anti-West Isolationist Xenophobic Ultra-Conservative
A few Tsars
Intellectual elites
Merchants/businessmen
Young members of the middle class.
Most Tsars
Russian Orthodox Church
Military
Boyars
peasants
DEMAGOGUE
REFORM-MINDED LEADER

96. Ivan the Great (r )
Ivan III Tearing the Great Khan’s Letter Requesting More Tribute in 1480.

97. Ivan IV: Ivan the Terrible
In 1533, the 3 year old Ivan IV inherited the throne of Russia.
In 1547, Ivan took legitimate power, viewing himself as the true heir of the Roman and Byzantine empires.
He took the title czar (from Caesar), a title that would continue in Russia until 1917.
He expanded Russian territory, modernized the legal code and built the power of the monarchy.
Formed a group of loyal soldiers known as the Oprichniki.

98. By Ilyá Yefímovich Répin, 1885

99. Peter the Great (r )

100. Peter the Great
Traveled Europe in disguise to observe European culture.
Centralized royal authority bringing all Russians under his authority.
Reduced the power of the nobility.
Gained control of the Russian Orthodox Church.

101. Westernization Under Peter
Simplified alphabet
Introduced Arabic numerals
1st Russsian language newspaper
Promoted European fashion
Public works
Increased role of women in society.
Developed mining and textile industries
Established St. Petersburg as the symbol of the new, modern Russia

102. Expansion Under Peter
Largest army in Europe or Asia in the late 1600’s:
Used military to gain ports on the Baltic Sea by defeating Sweden
Extended Russia eastward toward the Bering Strait
Sent explorers into North America

103. Catherine II
Like Peter, worsened the lives of peasants, but further Westernized the nobles.
Added 20,000 square miles of land to Russia, including parts of Poland, Siberia, China, areas around the Black Sea and what would eventually become Alaska.

104. Absolutism in Russia: The Romanov Dynasty (1613-1917)
Peter I (“the Great,” r )
Worked to modernize Russia on western European model
Developed modern Russian army, reformed Russian government bureaucracy, demanded changes in fashion: beards forbidden
Built new capital at St. Petersburg
Catherine II (“the Great”, r )
Huge military expansion
Partitions of Poland,
Social reforms at first, but end with Pugachev peasant rebellion ( )