1. Rachels on cultural relativism - 1 Rachels on Cultural Relativism zConnections between Mill & relativism yGertrude Himmelfarb argues that Mill, by making truth dependent on falsity (false ideas are useful for keeping true ones alive and for finding good reasons for the true ones), tends to make truth and falsity equals. xShe argues that this position lends credence to the current relativist temper.

2. Rachels on cultural relativism - 2 Rachels on Cultural Relativism yAnother argument for a connection between Mill’s ideas and the current relativism is rooted in Mill’s individualism. xExtreme individualism fosters the view that each person’s beliefs and values are valid for him or her; there are no objective beliefs and values. Each person is his or her sovereign.

3. Rachels on cultural relativism - 3 Rachels on Cultural Relativism zWhat is relativism? yThe main ideas x1. There is no over-arching system to which one can appeal for determining what is good or bad, true or false. There are no external standards for determining goodness & truth.

4. Rachels on cultural relativism - 4 Rachels on Cultural Relativism x2. All truth and value claims are relative to either personal choice or culture. Thus all standards for assessing truth and goodness are internal to a system or framework.

5. Rachels on cultural relativism - 5 Rachels on Cultural Relativism yDifferent types of relativism xBased on level or size 1. Individual - what is good & true & beautiful is a matter of individual choice 2. Cultural - what is good & true & beautiful is defined by the rules & practices of the culture

6. Rachels on cultural relativism - 6 Rachels on Cultural Relativism xBased on area of human ideas & activity 1. Cognitive 2. Moral 3. Aesthetic

7. Rachels on cultural relativism - 7 Rachels on Cultural Relativism zJames Rachels. “The Challenge of Cultural Relativism.” In, The Elements of Moral Philosophy, 3rd ed. (NY: Random House, 1999): 20-36. zDifferent cultures have different moral codes. yThe story from Herodotus (Greek historian, c.484 - c.425) yWhat follows from this?

8. Rachels on cultural relativism - 8 Rachels on Cultural Relativism ySome social scientists (e.g., William Graham Sumner) argue that what follows is that there are no universal truths in ethics; all ethical norms are relative to cultures. yReconstruction of the argument x1. Different societies have different moral codes x2. The moral code of any given society has no special moral status.

9. Rachels on cultural relativism - 9 Rachels on Cultural Relativism x3. There are no universal moral truths. x4. The moral code of each society determines what is right or wrong for that society. x5. The advantage of cultural, moral relativism is that it promotes tolerance.

10. Rachels on cultural relativism - 10 Rachels on Cultural Relativism yExamination of this argument -- three criticisms y1. The argument contains a non sequitor xThe key premise & conclusion in the argument are: (1) Different cultures have different moral codes. (2) Therefore, there are no objective truths in morality.

11. Rachels on cultural relativism - 11 Rachels on Cultural Relativism xRachels: this move is fallacious. xIt moves from what people believe to a claim about what is really the case. Cf. Geocentrism or the phlogiston theory y2. Tracing out the consequences of CR If CR is true, there is no justification for criticizing practices such as slavery or anti-semiticism or female excision.

12. Rachels on cultural relativism - 12 Rachels on Cultural Relativism If CR is true, we can determine what is good or evil simply by consulting the prevailing standards of our society. If CR is true, the idea of moral progress & moral reform is nonsensical. xNotice that each of these criticisms can be put into the form of a reductio ad absurdum.

13. Rachels on cultural relativism - 13 Rachels on Cultural Relativism y3. The premise of CR can be challenged xIs it really the case that fundamental values differ from culture to culture? xE.g., Eskimos & infanticide & treatment of the elderly

14. Rachels on cultural relativism - 14 Rachels on Cultural Relativism yWhat about the claim that CR has the advantage of promoting tolerance? xRachels: One can criticize the moral values of other cultures & still be appreciative of many of their beliefs. x[Cultural relativists are often very intolerant of those who claim that there are some universal moral truths. Indeed, cultural relativists often smugly content with current moral values, & not open to other values.]

15. Rachels on cultural relativism - 15 Rachels on Cultural Relativism yDespite its flaws, CR can teach us some lessons. x1. The values of our culture tend to look natural & rational to us. x2. Our awareness of # 1 can lead us to be more open-minded