1. Lecture 9, March 29 PET Physics Review Image of the Week

2. Velocity P2 – P1 T2 – T1 In Words: Change in position vs. time

3. Acceleration Change in Velocity over time Increase or decrease in speed of a particle A linear accelerator “accelerates” a particle to an extremely high velocity. The particle then slams into a target atom.

4. Conservation of Energy Total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system.

5. Protons: one positive unit of charge Mass = 1.67 x 10 -24 grams, 1.00759 amu Defines the Element Neutrons: neutral charge 1.00898 amu Electrons: one negative unit of charge Mass = 9.1 x 10 -28 grams = 1/1835 that of a proton.

6. E = MC 2 Einstein’s Equation Mass can be converted into energy

7. Mass Defect Definition: There exists a difference in mass between constituent particles and the total mass of the atom. Example: C-12 is 12 amu Individually, the particles add up to 12.10266 amu This difference is the binding energy of the atom.

8. Binding Energies The mass defect distributes through various levels of binding energy in both the nucleus and electron shells of the atom To simplify, electron shells are denoted By letter values for shells they occupy, innermost being the K shell. Binding energy keeps the electron in the shell, and is highest for the innermost electrons.

9. Binding Energy Continued At the nuclear level, binding energy is derived from the strong nuclear force and is the energy required to disassemble a nucleus into neutrons and protons. At the atomic level, binding energy is derived from electromagnetic interaction and is the energy required to disassemble electrons from the atom.strong nuclear forceelectromagnetic interaction

10. Units of Energy Force = mass x acceleration Unit of force: dyne = grams x cm/sec 2 Erg: A unit of energy equal to the work done when a force of one dyne acts through a distance of one centimeter. Electron Volt: The energy acquired by an electron falling through a potential difference of one volt, approximately 1.6 × 10 -12 ergs Mass Defect of C-12 = 95.62779 MeV

11. Some Quantum Theory E = mc 2 Energy = Mass in grams x speed of light squared (c 2 ) However, this is the expression for erg. Therefore, in Einstein’s Equation, energy is given in ergs.

12. Quantum States An electron does not stay in an excited state for very long - it soon returns to the ground states. When it does so, a photon is emitted that has the same energy as the difference in the energy level between the excited state and the ground state

13. Line Spectra From Hydrogen

14. Electromagnetic Radiation

15. Model of Shape of Electromagnetic Radiation “Wave Function”

16. How Does Energy Enter Into The Equation? We need a constant that gives us the energy per cycle during one second. Discovered by Max Planck: Planck’s constant: h h = 6.626 x 10 -34 J. sec = 6.626 x 10 -27 erg. sec = 4.136 x 10 -15 eV. sec

17. Energy of a Photon = h x f = 4.136 x 10 -15 eV. sec x f In words, Planck’s Constant times the frequency But f = c/lambda Therefore, E can also be expressed as (h x c)/ lambda = 4.136 x 10 -15 eV. sec x 3.0 x 10 10 cm/sec = 12.4/lambda

18. Calculations Given the frequency, or wavelength, of a photon, the Energy can be calculated. Likewise, given the energy, the frequency and wavelength can be calculated.

19. Example #1 Find the energy of a photon with a wavelength of: 4.136 x 10 -5 cm E = (h x c)/ lambda = 12.408/ lambda = 12.408 eV. cm/4.136 x 10 -5cm = 300,000 eV = 300KeV = 3 Mev

20. Electromagnetic Photon Emission Types:  Gamma Radiation  X-radiation

21. Beta Plus Decay Also called “Positron Decay.” Occurs most often in lighter nuclei.

22. Positron Decay

23. Electron Capture Electron capture is one form of radioactivity. A parent nucleus may capture one of its orbital electrons and emit a neutrino. This is a process which competes with positron emission and has the same effect on the atomic number. Most commonly, it is a K-shell electron which is captured, and this is referred to as K-capture. A typical example isradioactivity

24. EC

25. Electron Capture Continued In the middle range of the periodic table, those isotopes which are lighter than the most stable isotopes tend to decay by electron capture, and those heavier decay by negative beta decay. An example of this pattern is seen with silver isotopes, with two stable isotopes plus one of lower mass which decays by electron capture and one of heavier mass which decays by beta emission.silver isotopes

26. Decay Schemes  Graphical Illustration of Decay Process  Depicts Energy Levels from Excitation Energy to Ground State  Direction of Arrows Identifies Type of Radiation

27. Example of Decay Scheme

28. Production of Positron Emitters

29. Radioactive Materials Our world is radioactive and has been since it was created. Over 60 radionuclides (radioactive elements) can be found in nature, and they can be placed in three general categories: –Primordial - from before the creation of the Earth –Cosmogenic - formed as a result of cosmic ray interactions –Human produced - enhanced or formed due to human actions (minor amounts compared to natural)

30. Requirements for Nuclear Medicine  Unfortunately, the radioactive materials found in nature are of really no utility in nuclear medicine imaging  For imaging, we need: short half life, optimal gamma energy, good statistics (# of available photons)

31. Radionuclide Production  Methods by which radionuclides are produced. Radionuclides can be produced in a nuclear reactor, in a cyclotron or in a radionuclide generator.nuclear reactorcyclotron radionuclide generator

32. Some Terms Flux: # of neutrons, photons, etc, passing through one cm 2 /instant of time Fluence: # of neutrons, photons, etc, that passed through one cm 2 over a period of time. Cross Section: a probability of interaction, and thus transmutation after target bombardment.

34. Particle Accelerators (Cyclotrons)  Particle Accelerator Did you know that you have a type of particle accelerator in your house right now? In fact, you are reading this slide with one! The cathode ray tube (CRT) of any TV or computer monitor is really a particle accelerator.TVcomputer monitor

35. CRT Example  The CRT takes particles (electrons) from the cathode, speeds them up and changes their direction using electromagnets in a vacuum and then smashes them into phosphor molecules on the screen. The collision results in a lighted spot, or pixel, on your TV or computer monitor.electromagnets

36. CRT Diagram

37. A cyclotron consists of a pair of hollow, semicircular metal electrodes (called "dees" because of their shape), positioned between the poles of a large electromagnet (not shown). The dees are separated from one another by a narrow gap. Near the center of the dees is an ion source (typically an electrical arc device in a gas) that is used to generate charged particles.

38. Cyclotron

39. Principle of Operation  Period, T, of revolution is constant  Velocity increases with each revolution.  Radius of revolution increases with each new period.  This enable the application of alternating electric fields, thus accelerating the particles.

40. Cyclotron Produced Radionuclides Cyclotron produced radionuclides include all PET nuclides in common use such as fluorine F -18, oxygen O -15, nitrogen N -13 and carbon C -11, which are activated by proton irradiation. fluorine F oxygen O nitrogen N carbon C

41. Reaction Equations X (n, p) Y Means neutron, proton reaction X, the parent nucleus is bombarded with a neutron. The product nucleus decays with the emission of a proton.

42. PET/CT Virtual Bronchoscopy