1. slide 0 The sticky-wage model If it turns out thatthen unemployment and output are at their natural rates Real wage is less than its target, so firms hire more workers and output rises above its natural rate Real wage exceeds its target, so firms hire fewer workers and output falls below its natural rate

2. slide 1 The sticky-wage model  Implies that the real wage should be counter- cyclical, it should move in the opposite direction as output over the course of business cycles: –In booms, when P typically rises, the real wage should fall. –In recessions, when P typically falls, the real wage should rise.  This prediction does not come true in the real world:

3. slide 2 The cyclical behavior of the real wage Percentage change in real wage Percentage change in real GDP 1982 1975 1993 1992 1960 1996 1999 1997 1998 1979 1970 1980 1991 1974 1990 1984 2000 1972 1965 -3-2012378654 4 3 2 1 0 -2 -3 -4 -5

4. slide 3 Small menu costs and aggregate-demand externalities  There are externalities to price adjustment: A price reduction by one firm causes the overall price level to fall (albeit slightly). This raises real money balances and increases aggregate demand, which benefits other firms.  Menu costs are the costs of changing prices (e.g., costs of printing new menus or mailing new catalogs)  In the presence of menu costs, sticky prices may be optimal for the firms setting them even though they are undesirable for the economy as a whole.

5. slide 4 Recessions as coordination failure  In recessions, output is low, workers are unemployed, and factories sit idle.  If all firms and workers would reduce their prices, then economy would return to full employment.  But, no individual firm or worker would be willing to cut his price without knowing that others will cut their prices. Hence, prices remain high and the recession continues.

6. slide 5 Recessions as coordination failure Firm 1 Firm 2 Cut price Keep high price Cut price Keep high price Firm 1 makes $30 Firm 2 makes $30 Firm 1 makes $5 Firm 2 makes $15 Firm 1 makes $15 Firm 2 makes $5 Firm 1 makes $15 Firm 2 makes $15

7. slide 6 The staggering of wages and prices  All wages and prices do not adjust at the same time.  This staggering of wage & price adjustment causes the overall price level to move slowly in response to demand changes.  Each firm and worker knows that when it reduces its nominal price, its relative price will be low for a time. This makes them reluctant to reduce their price.

8. slide 7 The staggering of wages and prices 1) Synchronized Price Setting  Every firm adjusts its price on the first day of every month May 1June 1 AD “boom” May 10

9. slide 8 The staggering of wages and prices 2) Staggered Price Setting  Half the firms set prices on the first day of each month and half on the fifteenth May 1June 1 AD May 10May 15 Half the firms raise their prices (But probably raise prices not very much) The other firms will make little adjustment when their turn comes

10. slide 9 The staggering of wages and prices 2) Staggered Price Setting  Price level rises slowly as the result of small price increases on the first and the fifteenth of each month (because no firm wishes to be the first to post a substantial price increase)