1. Summary of introductory concepts By Engr Sarfaraz Khan Turk
Lecture no 1 to 10
Basic Fluid Mechanics
Summary of introductory concepts
By Engr Sarfaraz Khan Turk

2. Introduction What is Fluid Mechanics?
Fluid mechanics deals with the study of all fluids under static and dynamic situations. Fluid mechanics is a branch of continuous mechanics which deals with a relationship between forces, motions, and statically conditions in a continuous material. This study area deals with many and diversified problems such as surface tension, fluid statics, flow in enclose bodies, or flow round bodies (solid or otherwise), flow stability, etc.

3. History Archimedes Newton Leibniz Bernoulli Euler Navier Stokes
Faces of Fluid Mechanics
Archimedes
(C BC)
Newton
( )
Leibniz
( )
Bernoulli
( )
Euler
( )
Navier
( )
Stokes
( )
Reynolds
( )
Prandtl
( )
Taylor
( )

4. Introduction contd
In fact, almost any action a person is doing involves some kind of a fluid mechanics problem. Furthermore, the boundary between the solid mechanics and fluid mechanics is some kind of gray shed and not a sharp distinction for the complex relationships between the different branches which only part of it should be drawn in the same time.). The fluid mechanics study involve many fields that have no clear boundaries between them.

5. Introduction contd Fluids omnipresent Weather & climate
Vehicles: automobiles, trains, ships, and planes, etc.
Environment
Physiology and medicine
Sports & recreation
Many other examples!

6. Introduction Field of Fluid Mechanics can be divided into 3 branches:
Fluid Statics: mechanics of fluids at rest
Kinematics: deals with velocities and streamlines w/o considering forces or energy
Fluid Dynamics: deals with the relations between velocities and accelerations and forces exerted by or upon fluids in motion

7. Streamlines
A streamline is a line that is tangential to the instantaneous velocity direction (velocity is a vector that has a direction and a magnitude)
Instantaneous streamlines in flow around a cylinder

8. Intro…con’t
Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in many areas of engineering and science. Examples are:
Biomechanics & Bio-fluid mechanics.
Blood flow through arteries
Flow of cerebral fluid
Meteorology and Ocean Engineering.
Movements of air currents and water currents
Chemical Engineering
Design of chemical processing equipment

9. Intro…con’t Mechanical Engineering Civil Engineering
Design of pumps, turbines, air-conditioning equipment, pollution-control equipment, etc.
Civil Engineering
Transport of river sediments
Pollution of air and water
Design of piping systems
Flood control systems

10. Intro…con’t Fluids essential to life History shaped by fluid mechanics
Human body 65% water
Earth’s surface is 2/3 water
Atmosphere extends 17km above the earth’s surface
History shaped by fluid mechanics
Geomorphology
Human migration and civilization
Modern scientific and mathematical theories and methods
Warfare
Affects every part of our lives

11. Dimensions and Units
Before going into details of fluid mechanics, we stress importance of units
In U.S, two primary sets of units are used:
1. SI (Systeme International) units
2. English units

12. Unit Table Quantity SI Unit English Unit Length (L) Meter (m)
Foot (ft)
Mass (m)
Kilogram (kg)
Slug (slug) = lb*sec2/ft
Time (T)
Second (s)
Second (sec)
Temperature ( )
Celcius (oC)
Farenheit (oF)
Force
Newton (N)=kg*m/s2
Pound (lb)

13. Dimensions and Units con’t
1 Newton – Force required to accelerate a 1 kg of mass to 1 m/s2
1 slug – is the mass that accelerates at 1 ft/s2 when acted upon by a force of 1 lb
To remember units of a Newton use F=ma (Newton’s 2nd Law)
[F] = [m][a]= kg*m/s2 = N

14. More on Dimensions
To remember units of a slug also use F=ma => m = F / a
[m] = [F] / [a] = lb / (ft / sec2) = lb*sec2 / ft
1 lb is the force of gravity acting on (or weight of ) a platinum standard whose mass is kg

15. Weight and Newton’s Law of Gravitation
Gravitational attraction force between two bodies
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
F = G m1m2/ r2
G - universal constant of gravitation
m1, m2 - mass of body 1 and body 2, respectively
r - distance between centers of the two masses
F - force of attraction

16. Weight m2 - mass of an object on earth’s surface m1 - mass of earth
r - distance between center of two masses
r1 - radius of earth
r2 - radius of mass on earth’s surface
r2 << r1, therefore r = r1+r2 ~ r1
Thus, F = m2 * (G * m1 / r2)

17. Weight
Weight (W) of object (with mass m2) on surface of earth (with mass m1) is defined as
W = m2g ; g =(Gm1/r2) gravitational acceleration
g = 9.31 m/s2 in SI units
g = 32.2 ft/sec2 in English units
See back of front cover of textbook for conversion tables between SI and English units

18. Properties of Fluids - Preliminaries
Consider a force, , acting on a 2D region of area A sitting on x-y plane
Cartesian components: z y A x

19. Cartesian components - Unit vector in x-direction
- Unit vector in y-direction
- Unit vector in z-direction
- Magnitude of in x-direction (tangent to surface)
- Magnitude of in y-direction (tangent to surface)
- Magnitude of in z-direction (normal to surface)

20. Shear stress and pressure
- For simplicity, let
Shear stress and pressure
Shear stress and pressure at a point

21. Units of stress (shear stress and pressure)

22. Properties of Fluids Con’t
Fluids are either liquids or gases
Liquid: A state of matter in which the molecules are relatively free to change their positions with respect to each other but restricted by cohesive forces so as to maintain a relatively fixed volume
Gas: a state of matter in which the molecules are practically unrestricted by cohesive forces. A gas has neither definite shape nor volume.

23. More on properties of fluids
Fluids considered in this course move under the action of a shear stress, no matter how small that shear stress may be (unlike solids)

24. Continuum view of Fluids
Convenient to assume fluids are continuously distributed throughout the region of interest. That is, the fluid is treated as a continuum
This continuum model allows us to not have to deal with molecular interactions directly. We will account for such interactions indirectly via viscosity
A good way to determine if the continuum model is acceptable is to compare a characteristic length of the flow region with the mean free path of molecules,
If , continuum model is valid

25. Mean free path ( ) – Average distance a molecule travels before it collides with another molecule.

26. Density and specific weight
Density (mass per unit volume):
Units of density:
Specific weight (weight per unit volume):
Units of specific weight:

27. Viscosity ( )
Viscosity can be thought as the internal stickiness of a fluid
Representative of internal friction in fluids
Internal friction forces in flowing fluids result from cohesion and momentum interchange between molecules.
Viscosity of a fluid depends on temperature:
In liquids, viscosity decreases with increasing temperature (i.e. cohesion decreases with increasing temperature)
In gases, viscosity increases with increasing temperature (i.e. molecular interchange between layers increases with temperature setting up strong internal shear)

28. More on Viscosity Viscosity is important, for example,
in determining amount of fluids that can be transported in a pipeline during a specific period of time
determining energy losses associated with transport of fluids in ducts, channels and pipes

29. No slip condition
Because of viscosity, at boundaries (walls) particles of fluid adhere to the walls, and so the fluid velocity is zero relative to the wall
Viscosity and associated shear stress may be explained via the following: flow between no-slip parallel plates.

30. Flow between no-slip parallel plates -each plate has area A
Moving plate
Fixed plate
Force induces velocity on top plate. At top plate flow velocity is
At bottom plate velocity is

31. The velocity induced by moving top plate can be sketched as follows:
The velocity induced by top plate is expressed as follows:

32. For a large class of fluids, empirically,
More specifically,
Shear stress induced by is
From previous slide, note that
Thus, shear stress is
In general we may use previous expression to find shear stress at a point
inside a moving fluid. Note that if fluid is at rest this stress is zero because

33. Newton’s equation of viscosity
Shear stress due to viscosity at a point:
- kinematic
viscosity
- viscosity (coeff. of viscosity)
fluid surface
Fixed no-slip plate
e.g.: wind-driven flow in ocean

34. Note is direction normal to the boundary
As engineers, Newton’s Law of Viscosity is very useful to us as we can use it to
evaluate the shear stress (and ultimately the shear force) exerted by a moving
fluid onto the fluid’s boundaries.
Note is direction normal to the boundary

35. Viscometer
Coefficient of viscosity can be measured empirically using a viscometer
Example: Flow between two concentric cylinders (viscometer) of length
- radial coordinate
Moving fluid
Fixed outer
cylinder
Rotating inner
cylinder

36. Inner cylinder is acted upon by a torque, , causing it to rotate about point at a constant angular velocity and
causing fluid to flow. Find an expression for
Because is constant, is balanced by a resistive torque exerted by the moving fluid onto inner cylinder
The resistive torque comes from the resistive stress exerted by the moving fluid onto the inner cylinder. This stress on the inner cylinder leads to an overall resistive force , which induces the resistive torque about point

37. Compressibility
All fluids compress if pressure increases resulting in an
increase in density
Compressibility is the change in volume due to a
change in pressure where V is volume and p is pressure.
A good measure of compressibility is the bulk modulus
(It is inversely proportional to compressibility often denoted K sometimes B).

38. Vertical, drained compressibility's
Material
β (m²/N or Pa−1)
Plastic clay
2×10–6 – 2.6×10–7
Stiff clay
2.6×10–7 – 1.3×10–7
Medium-hard clay
1.3×10–7 – 6.9×10–8
Loose sand
1×10–7 – 5.2×10–8
Dense sand
2×10–8 – 1.3×10–8
Dense, sandy gravel
1×10–8 – 5.2×10–9
Rock, fissured
6.9×10–10 – 3.3×10–10
Rock, sound
<3.3×10–10
Water at 25 °C (undrained)
4.6×10–10

39. Compressibility From previous expression we may write
For water at 15 psia and 68 degrees Farenheit,
From above expression, increasing pressure by 1000 psi will compress the water by only 1/320 (0.3%) of its original volume
Thus, water may be treated as incompressible (density is constant)
In reality, no fluid is incompressible, but this is a good approximation for
certain fluids The degree of compressibility of a fluid has strong implications for its dynamics.

40. Vapor pressure of liquids
All liquids tend to evaporate when placed in a closed container
Vaporization will terminate when equilibrium is reached between
the liquid and gaseous states of the substance in the container
i.e. # of molecules escaping liquid surface = # of incoming molecules
Under this equilibrium we call the call vapor pressure the saturation
pressure
At any given temperature, if pressure on liquid surface falls below the
the saturation pressure, rapid evaporation occurs (i.e. boiling)
For a given temperature, the saturation pressure is the boiling pressure

41. Properties of Liquids: Surface Tension http://www. visionlearning
Properties of Liquids: Surface Tension Water Strider Video

42. Surface Tension
Surface Tension-a force that tends to pull adjacent parts of a liquid’s surface together, thereby decreasing surface area to the smallest possible size.
~The higher the attraction forces (intermolecular forces), the higher the surface tension. Surface tension causes liquid droplets to take a spherical shape.
The surface of any liquid behaves as if it was a stretched membrane. This phenomenon is known as surface tension
Surface tension is caused by intermolecular forces at the liquid’s interface with a gas or a solid.

43. more bugs that think they’re all that and a bag of chips: the Water Strider

44. Surface Tension
Surface tension depends on the nature of the liquid, the surrounding media and temperature.
Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces will have higher values of surface tension than liquids that have weak intermolecular forces.
A. Beading of rain water on a waxy surface, such as a leaf. Water adheres weakly to wax and strongly to itself, so water clusters into drops. Surface tension gives them their near-spherical shape, because a sphere has the smallest possible surface area to volume ratio.

45. B. Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched
B. Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched. The animation shows water adhering to the faucet gaining mass until it is stretched to a point where the surface tension can no longer bind it to the faucet. It then separates and surface tension forms the drop into a sphere. If a stream of water was running from the faucet, the stream would break up into drops during its fall. Gravity stretches the stream, then surface tension pinches it into spheres.
C. Flotation of objects denser than water occurs when the object is nonwettable and its weight is small enough to be borne by the forces arising from surface tension. For example, water striders use surface tension to walk on the surface of a pond. The surface of the water behaves like an elastic film: the insect's feet cause indentations in the water's surface, increasing its surface area.

46. D. Separation of oil and water (in this case, water and liquid wax) is caused by a tension in the surface between dissimilar liquids. This type of surface tension is called "interface tension", but its chemistry is the same.
E. Tears of wine is the formation of drops and rivulets on the side of a glass containing an alcoholic beverage. Its cause is a complex interaction between the differing surface tensions of water and ethanol; it is induced by a combination of surface tension modification of water by ethanol together with ethanol evaporating faster than water.

47. Even a piece of steel can do this trick if it is small (steel  ~ 8x water)

48. 4 H2O molecules separated in space from each other
but what’s surface tension, really?
4 H2O molecules
separated in space from each other
have partial + and – charges
what would they do???

49. 4 H2O molecules they clump together + and – charges snuggle up close
potential energy of system has dropped

50. Surface Tension water in bulk has many binding partners
water at surface has less, has exposed charges left over
potential energy of water at surface is higher
deforming droplet to increase surface area takes work

51. Contact Angles
here’s a droplet on a surface -

52. Contact Angle here’s a slice of it –
tangent to droplet edge is “contact angle”
why is theta theta?

53. Contact Angle balance of forces surface tension pulls up
gravity & adhesion pulls down
what are the other two?

54. Remember this? water at surface has less binding partners
energy at surface is higher

55. What if - what if the circles are aluminum atoms in a solid?
what if the space above it is liquid ethanol?

56. Contact Angle
F = dE/dX
surface/air & surface/water interfaces also have “surface tension”, in ergs/cm2
moving water edge back and forth incurs energy costs/profits
but units of F are energy/distance, not area?! what’s the deal?

57. Obtuse contact Angles hydrophobic surface
“gravity & adhesion” is now “gravity & repulsion”
if no gravity, drop leaves