1. Homework 4 Unit 21 Problem 17, 18, 19 Unit 23 Problem 9, 10, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20

2. The Nature of Light As a wave… –A small disturbance in an electric field creates a small magnetic field, which in turn creates a small electric field, and so on… Light propagates itself “ by its bootstraps! ” –Light waves can interfere with other light waves, canceling or amplifying them! –The color of light is determined by its wavelength. As a particle… –Particles of light (photons) travel through space. –These photons have very specific energies. that is, light is quantized. –Photons strike your eye (or other sensors) like a very small bullet, and are detected. Light is radiant energy. Travels very fast – 300,000 km/sec! Can be described either as a wave or as a particle traveling through space.

3. The Effect of Distance on Light Light from distant objects seems very dim –Why? Is it because the photons are losing energy? –No – the light is simply spreading out as it travels from its source to its destination –The farther from the source you are, the dimmer the light seems –We say that the object ’ s brightness, or amount of light received from a source, is decreasing This is an inverse-square law – the brightness decreases as the square of the distance (d) from the source

4. The Nature of Matter The atom has a nucleus at its center containing protons and neutrons Outside of the nucleus, electrons whiz around in clouds called orbitals –Electrons can also be described using wave or particle models –Electron orbitals are quantized – that is, they exist only at very particular energies –The lowest energy orbital is called the ground state, one electron wave long To move an electron from one orbital to the next higher one, a specific amount of energy must be added. Likewise, a specific amount of energy must be released for an electron to move to a lower orbital These are called electronic transitions

5. The Chemical Elements The number of protons (atomic number) in a nucleus determines what element a substance is. Each element has a number of electrons equal to the number of protons The electron orbitals are different for each element, and the energy differences between the orbitals are unique as well. This means that if we can detect the energy emitted or absorbed by an atom during an electronic transition, we can tell what element the atom belongs to, even from millions of light years away!

6. Measuring Temperature It is useful to think of temperature in a slightly different way than we are accustomed to –Temperature is a measure of the motion of atoms in an object –Objects with low temperatures have atoms that are not moving much –Objects with high temperatures have atoms that are moving around very rapidly The Kelvin temperature scale was designed to reflect this –0  K is absolute zero –the atoms in an object are not moving at all!

7. Results of More Collisions Additional collisions mean that more photons are emitted, so the object gets brighter Additional hard collisions means that more photons of higher energy are emitted, so the object appears to shift in color from red, to orange, to yellow, and so on. Of course we have a Law to describe this…

8. Wien’s Law and the Stefan-Boltzmann Law Wien ’ s Law: –Hotter bodies emit more strongly at shorter wavelengths SB Law: –The luminosity of a hot body rises rapidly with temperature

9. Taking the Temperature of Astronomical Objects Wien ’ s Law lets us estimate the temperatures of stars easily and fairly accurately We just need to measure the wavelength ( max ) at which the star emits the most photons Then,

10. The Stefan-Boltzmann Law If we know an object ’ s temperature (T), we can calculate how much energy the object is emitting using the SB law  is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and is equal to 5.67  10 -8 Watts/m 2 /K 4 The Sun puts out 64 million watts per square meter – lots of energy!

11. Absorption If a photon of exactly the right energy (corresponding to the energy difference between orbitals) strikes an electron, that electron will absorb the photon and move into the next higher orbital –The atom is now in an excited state If the photon is of higher or lower energies, it will not be absorbed – it will pass through as if the atom were not there. This process is called absorption If the electron gains enough energy to leave the atom entirely, we say the atom is now ionized, or is an ion.

12. Emission If an atom drops from one orbital to the next lower one, it must first emit a photon with the same amount of energy as the orbital energy difference. This is called emission.

13. Seeing Spectra Seeing the Sun ’ s spectrum requires a few special tools, but it is not difficult –A narrow slit only lets a little light into the experiment –Either a grating or a prism splits the light into its component colors –If we look closely at the spectrum, we can see lines, corresponding to wavelengths of light that were absorbed.

14. Emission Spectra Imagine that we have a hot hydrogen gas. –Collisions among the hydrogen atoms cause electrons to jump up to higher orbitals, or energy levels –Collisions can also cause the electrons to jump back to lower levels, and emit a photon of energy hc/ –If the electron falls from orbital 3 to orbital 2, the emitted photon will have a wavelength of 656 nm –If the electron falls from orbital 3 to orbital 2, the emitted photon will have a wavelength of 486 nm We can monitor the gas, and count how many photons of each wavelength we see. If we graph this data, we ’ ll see an emission spectrum!

15. Emission spectrum of hydrogen This spectrum is unique to hydrogen –Like a barcode! If we were looking at a hot cloud of interstellar gas in space, and saw these lines, we would know the cloud was made of hydrogen!

16. Different atom, different spectrum! Every element has its own spectrum. Note the differences between hydrogen and helium spectra below.

17. Absorption Spectra What if, instead of hot hydrogen gas, we had a cloud of cool hydrogen gas between us and a star? –Photons of an energy that corresponds to the electronics transitions in hydrogen will be absorbed by electrons in the gas –The light from those photons is effectively removed from the spectrum –The spectrum will have dark lines where the missing light would be –This is an absorption spectrum! –Also like a barcode!

18. Types of Spectra Kirchoff ’ s Laws: –If the source emits light that is continuous, and all colors are present, we say that this is a continuous spectrum. –If the molecules in the gas are well- separated and moving rapidly (have a high temperature), the atoms will emit characteristic frequencies of light. This is an emission-line spectrum. –If the molecules of gas are well- separated, but cool, they will absorb light of a characteristic frequency as it passes through. This is an absorption line spectrum.

19. Spectra of Astronomical Objects