1. Individual Transistors Integrated Circuit (IC) PCB Board
Relay
Vacuum Tubes and CRT
Individual Transistors
Integrated Circuit (IC)
PCB Board
Masks, Ingot, Wafers
Chips, Boards
Video: Transitorized

2. The Bipolar NPN Transistor
The base-emitter junction is forward biased, the base-collector junction is reverse biased.
The transistor is bipolar because both charge carriers (holes and electrons) are present.

3. Fabricating a transistor on a single piece of doped silicon
wikipedia
CNN.com

4. Basic Amplifier Circuit using the NPN Bipolar Transistor

5. Model of first Transistor c. 1947

6. The Field Effect Transistor (FET)
Electricity flows from the Source to the Drain when an electric field is applied to the Gate.

7. Field Effect Transistor (FET)
FETs are tiny switches that can open and close very quickly.
A negative voltage will turn this p-channel transistor on. ‘On’ means there is a connection between the Source and Drain.

8. Before the transistor, there was the Vacuum Tube
Also used to amplify signals
Also used as a switch

9. Electrons are “boiled” off the cathode and
Electrons are “boiled” off the cathode and
attracted to the anode because of the applied voltage.
A grid controls the electron flow.
The signal to be amplified is connected
to the grid. A small signal controls
a much current.

10. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Still is use Today
Vacuum Tube, Electron Gun, Fluorescent Screen, and Coils which accelerate and deflect the electron beam
Magnetron
Power Amplifiers

11. ENIAC in 1946 First electronic computer Designed for the Army $500,000
19,000 Vacuum Tubes
1000 Relays
200 KW of power
Filled multiple rooms (700 sq. ft)
Soldered and constructed by hand by the University of Penn.
Slow
Unreliable

12. Hearing Aids - the first commercial devices that used transistors c

13. Integration of parts required hand wiring
Individual Parts
Integration of parts required hand wiring
Early Sony Transistor Radio

14. As told to American Physical Society in 1959,
Richard Feynman
As told to American Physical Society in 1959,
'People tell me about miniaturization, and how far it has progressed today. There is a device on the market by which you can write the Lord's Prayer on the head of a pin. But that's nothing . Why can we not write the entire 24 volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica on the head of a pin?
Feynman asked why wires couldn’t be 90 nm

15. The birth of the integrated circuit (IC)
1947- using silicon as a transistor is discovered
1959- Texas Instruments put 10 transistors on one piece of silicon. First company to use Silicon instead of Germanium
Used in Apollo Program to achieve moon landing – transistors integrated on pieces of silicon offered lower power and weight

16. Moore’s Law (Gordon Moore – Intel Founder)

17. Intel 4004
The World’s first Microprocessor, made in 1971
Computer on a chip!
It had 2300 transistors and ran at 740 KHz.
It could execute 45 instructions.
Could execute 96,000 instructions per second
As powerful as the ENIAC

18. Where’s the chip?

20. Chips can have up to a billion transistors built on a small piece of silicon.
CMOS stands for ‘Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor’. This means CMOS chips contain both pMOS and nMOS transistors.

22. Integrated Circuit Manufacturing Process

23. Clean Room

24. Masks, Photoresist, & a developing process called Photolithography transfers patterns to the wafer

27. What do computers do? Very simple operations
Every computer has a small set of simple instructions it can perform (Instruction Set)
Operate on 1’s and 0’s (binary data)
Numbers are represented with 1’s and 0’s
Letters, symbols, & keystokes are represented with 1’s and 0’s.
Do the operations very fast
Complex operations are broken down into many VERY simple operations.

28. Modern Computers might process 64 bits at a time
Etc.

29. Binary Codes are base-2 numbers
2097  2 X X X X 100 = 2,097
versus
1011  1 X X X X 1 = 11
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Exchange)
Each letter, punctuation mark, etc. has a unique 8-bit code.
 FUN
The Declaration of Independence, your love letters and s, the Bible are huge numbers.

30. All data can be digitized with out degradation over time.
Analog sound waves can be stored directly in their analog form, e.g. by cutting grooves on vinyl.

31. Photographic picture is an analog image
Photographic picture is an analog image. The photo represents the original image. Note there is a continuous range of hues and shades in negative film. Copying from analog data usually results in loss of data. Copies from copies do not look as good as originals.
A digital image is made up of many pixels, each pixel having one color out of a fixed number of possible colors.
Each pixel is a digital number. Copying does not result in loss of data.

32. Data can be converted to binary (digitizing) using an analog to digital converter
Periodically take a sample, at a rate of at least ½ the frequency. The more samples the more information is captured. The more bits used the closer the sample approximates the original. /

33. Logical ‘AND’ Example:
Series Circuit with battery, two switches and a light bulb.

34. Logical ‘OR’
Example:
Two switches in parallel, with a bulb and battery.

35. Inverter or NOT gate Example:
Series circuit with switch in parallel with bulb.

36. NAND and NOR
Not-AND  NAND
Not-OR  OR
Easier to make than AND and OR

37. MOSFET Transistor as a Switch
PNP type – negative voltage (a ‘0’) turns this transistor “on”

38. NPN type – a postive voltage (a ‘1’) turns this transistor “on”

39. Transistors perform logical operations

40. Build a Truth Table for this Circuit:

41. Exclusive OR (XOR)
Inequality Tester
1-Bit Adder
Only 16 transistors

42. XORs and NOR make an equality testerB1 A2 B2
How could this circuit be used to implement your word processors ‘search’ function? How would you find “FUN” in your document?

43. XORs, ANDs, and OR make an Adder Circuit

44. Summary Transistors act like on/off switches
Computers operate on long words (64 bits) of 1’s and 0’s
Sophisticated operations can be broken down into many very simple operations.
Complex circuits are built from simpler circuits (Equality Tester made from XOR and NOR)
Basic logic operations are done with a few transistor.
Modern computers could be made with mechanical relays.

45. Sources