1. Nuclear Chemistry Chapter 21 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2. Radioactivity _________________—unstable atomic nuclei spontaneously emit particles, electromagnetic radiation (EMR), or both ________________________—results from bombarding nuclei with neutrons, protons, or other nuclei

3. X A Z Mass Number Atomic Number Element Symbol ______________ (Z) = number of protons in nucleus ______________ (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons = atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons A Z 1p1p 1 1H1H 1 or proton 1n1n 0 neutron 0e0e 00 or electron 0e0e +1 00 or positron 4 He 2 44 2 or  particle 21.1

4. What is the difference between and 21.1 p.673 0e0e +1 00 0e0e 00 represents an electron in or from an atomic orbital represents an electron that is physically identical to an electron in or from an atomic orbital, but this electron comes from the decay of a neutron to a proton and an electron—it is also called a beta particle or ray

5. 21.1 Comparison of Chemical Reactions and Nuclear Reactions

6. Balancing Nuclear Equations 1.Conserve mass number (A). The sum of protons plus neutrons in the products must equal the sum of protons plus neutrons in the reactants. 1n1n 0 U 235 92 + Cs 138 55 Rb 96 37 1n1n 0 ++ 2 235 + 1 = 138 + 96 + 2x1 2.Conserve atomic number (Z) or nuclear charge. The sum of nuclear charges in the products must equal the sum of nuclear charges in the reactants. 1n1n 0 U 235 92 + Cs 138 55 Rb 96 37 1n1n 0 ++ 2 92 + 0 = 55 + 37 + 2x0 21.1

7. 212 Po decays by alpha emission. Write the balanced nuclear equation for the decay of 212 Po. 4 He 2 44 2 or alpha particle - 212 Po 4 He + A X 84 2Z 212 = 4 + AA = 208 84 = 2 + ZZ = 82 212 Po 4 He + 208 Pb 84 282 21.1 Ex 21.1, p.673

8. Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay Beta decay 14 C 14 N + 0  + 6 7 40 K 40 Ca + 0  + 19 20 1 n 1 p + 0  + 0 ________ # of ________ by 1 Positron decay 11 C 11 B + 0  + 6 5 +1 38 K 38 Ar + 0  + 19 18 +1 1 p 1 n + 0  + 1 0 +1 ________ # of ________ by 1 and have A = 0 and Z = 0 21.2 1

9. Electron capture decay ________ # of ________ by 1 Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay 37 Ar + 0 e 37 Cl + 18 17 55 Fe + 0 e 55 Mn + 26 25 1 p + 0 e 1 n + 1 0 Alpha decay ________ # of ________ by 2 212 Po 4 He + 208 Pb 84 282 Spontaneous fission 252 Cf 2 125 In + 2 1 n 98 490 21.2

10. Nuclear Stability Certain numbers of neutrons and protons are extra stable n or p = 2, 8, 20, 50, 82 and 126 Like extra stable numbers of electrons in noble gases (e = 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86) Nuclei with even numbers of both protons and neutrons are more stable than those with odd numbers of neutron and protons All isotopes of the elements with atomic numbers higher than 83 are radioactive All isotopes of Tc and Pm are radioactive 21.2 Number of Stable Isotopes with Even and Odd Numbers of Protons and Neutrons

11. n/p too large beta decay X n/p too small positron decay or electron capture Y 21.2 p.675

12. ______________________ is the energy required to break up a nucleus into its component protons and neutrons. BE is an indication of the stability of a nucleus. In order to compare nuclei of two different isotopes/elements, we must take into account the fact that they have different numbers of _________. For this reason, nuclear binding energy per nucleon is more useful. 21.2 p.676

13. Mass Defect The difference between the ________________ of an atom and the ________________ of the masses of protons, neutrons, and electrons What does the mass defect tell us? How much mass was changed to energy in the formation of the atom. p.676

14. The Law of Charges tells us…? So how can all those positively charged protons be crammed into the tiny space of the nucleus? We call it the “strong nuclear force” or just the “strong force.” Some of the mass of the nucleons is converted to energy and lost. This is the general idea behind fusion: Build new, larger nuclei and release great amounts of energy!

15. Nuclear binding energy per nucleon vs Mass number nuclear binding energy nucleon nuclear stability 21.2 p.678 note

16. Which element has the greatest net attractive forces among its nucleons? (graph) Radioactivity: unstable nuclei spontaneously emit particles, electromagnetic radiation (EMR), or both Main types of radioactivity:  particles (He 2+ )  particles (e - )  rays (short-wavelength emr) positron emission electron capture Often it involves a multi-step sequence, a series…. and all obey first-order kinetics.

17. Kinetics of Radioactive Decay N daughter rate = - NN tt rate = N NN tt = N - N = N 0 exp(- t)lnN = lnN 0 - t N = the number of atoms at time t N 0 = the number of atoms at time t = 0 is the decay or rate constant ln2 = t½t½ 21.3 The Uranium Decay Series

18. Kinetics of Radioactive Decay [N] = [N] 0 exp(- t) ln[N] = ln[N] 0 - t [N] ln [N] 21.3 is the first order rate constant and N is the number of radioactive nuclei present at time t p.679f

19. Radiometric Assumptions The method measures the parent/daughter ratio of the elements. 1. The system must initially contain none of ____________________________________. 2. The decay rate must _______________________. 3. The amounts of the parent element and the daughter products must be affected by ___________________________________.

20. Radiocarbon Dating 14 N + 1 n 14 C + 1 H 716 0 14 C 14 N + 0  + 6 7 t ½ = 5730 years Uranium-238 Dating 238 U 206 Pb + 4  + 6 0  92822 t ½ = 4.51 x 10 9 years 21.3 p.681f Potassium-40 Dating t ½ = 1.2 x 10 9 years 40 K + 0 e 40 Ar 19 18

21. Nuclear Transmutation Cyclotron Particle Accelerator 14 N + 4  17 O + 1 p 7 2 8 1 27 Al + 4  30 P + 1 n 13 2 15 0 14 N + 1 p 11 C + 4  7 1 6 2 21.4 p.683

22. Nuclear Transmutation 21.4 The Transuranium Elements

23. Nuclear Fission 21.5 235 U + 1 n 90 Sr + 143 Xe + 3 1 n + Energy 92 54 3800 Energy = [mass 235 U + mass n – (mass 90 Sr + mass 143 Xe + 3 x mass n )] x c 2 Energy = 3.3 x 10 -11 J per 235 U = 2.0 x 10 13 J per mole 235 U Combustion of 1 ton of coal = 5 x 10 7 J p.685f

24. Nuclear Fission 21.5 235 U + 1 n 90 Sr + 143 Xe + 3 1 n + Energy 92 54 3800 Representative fission reaction p.686

25. Nuclear Fission 21.5 A ________________________ is a self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fission reactions. The minimum mass of fissionable material required to generate a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is the ________________________. Non-critical Critical

26. Nuclear Fission 21.5 Schematic diagram of a nuclear fission reactor

27. Annual Waste Production 21.5 35,000 tons SO 2 4.5 x 10 6 tons CO 2 1,000 MW coal-fired power plant 3.5 x 10 6 ft 3 ash 1,000 MW nuclear power plant 70 ft 3 vitrified waste Nuclear Fission

28. 21.5 Nuclear Fission Hazards of the radioactivities in spent fuel compared to uranium ore From “Science, Society and America’s Nuclear Waste,” DOE/RW-0361 TG

29. 21.6 Nuclear Fusion 2 H + 2 H 3 H + 1 H 1 1 1 1 Fusion ReactionEnergy Released 2 H + 3 H 4 He + 1 n 1 1 2 0 6 Li + 2 H 2 4 He 3 1 2 6.3 x 10 -13 J 2.8 x 10 -12 J 3.6 x 10 -12 J Tokamak magnetic plasma confinement

30. 21.6 Radioisotopes in Medicine 1 out of every 3 hospital patients will undergo a nuclear medicine procedure 24 Na, t ½ = 14.8 hr,  emitter, _______________________ 131 I, t ½ = 14.8 hr,  emitter, ________________________ 123 I, t ½ = 13.3 hr,  ray emitter, _____________________ 18 F, t ½ = 1.8 hr,   emitter, ________________________ 99m Tc, t ½ = 6 hr,  ray emitter, _____________________ Brain images with 123 I-labeled compound

31. 21.6 Biological Effects of Radiation Radiation absorbed dose (rad) 1 rad = 1 x 10 -5 J/g of material Roentgen equivalent for man (rem) 1 rem = 1 rad x QQuality Factor  -ray = 1  = 1  = 20 Average Yearly Radiation Doses for Americans

32. Biological Effects of Radiation Formation of _______________ and/or ________________ that attack membranes, enzymes, or DNA. Damage can be ________________ or _______________. p.695f