1. Done Course Overview Step back and look at the History of AI
What is AI?
What are the Major Challenges?
What are the Main Techniques?
Where are we failing, and why?
Step back and look at the Science
Step back and look at the History of AI
What are the Major Schools of Thought?
What of the Future?
Part I: Introduce you to what’s happening in Artificial Intelligence
Done
Part II: Give you an appreciation for the big picture
 Why it is a grand challenge
What are we trying to do
How do we do it
A lot of people would start with the history – but it’s a bit meaningless at first

2. Build a Real Universal Turing Machine
By now had all necessary ideas… 1946 Turing’s plans got approval
Automatic Computing Engine (ACE)
Progress was slow – lack of cooperation
Turing without influence, disillusioned
(…full ACE was not actually complete until 1957 (obsolete))
1947 Turing back to Cambridge
Interest in Neurology
Wrote early paper on Neural Nets
Believed complex mechanical system could exhibit learning ability
1948 Turing and Champernowne wrote a chess program
(for a computer that did not yet exist.)
1948 Manchester Computer completed
Turing accepted post as deputy director
Worked on software for Manchester Mark I
1950 “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” published
… but became more interested in biology - morphogenesis

3. “The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also helpful
“The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also helpful. In considering the functions of the mind or the brain we find certain operations which we can explain in purely mechanical terms. This we say does not correspond to the real mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip off if we are to find the real mind. But then in what remains we find a further skin to be stripped off, and so on. Proceeding in this way do we ever come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to the skin which has nothing in it? In the latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”
Alan Turing

4. “The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also helpful
“The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also helpful. In considering the functions of the mind or the brain we find certain operations which we can explain in purely mechanical terms. This we say does not correspond to the real mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip off if we are to find the real mind. But then in what remains we find a further skin to be stripped off, and so on. Proceeding in this way do we ever come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to the skin which has nothing in it? In the latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”
Alan Turing

5. “The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also helpful
“The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also helpful. In considering the functions of the mind or the brain we find certain operations which we can explain in purely mechanical terms. This we say does not correspond to the real mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip off if we are to find the real mind. But then in what remains we find a further skin to be stripped off, and so on. Proceeding in this way do we ever come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to the skin which has nothing in it? In the latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”
Alan Turing

6. “The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also helpful
“The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also helpful. In considering the functions of the mind or the brain we find certain operations which we can explain in purely mechanical terms. This we say does not correspond to the real mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip off if we are to find the real mind. But then in what remains we find a further skin to be stripped off, and so on. Proceeding in this way do we ever come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to the skin which has nothing in it? In the latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”
Bit like society of mind
Alan Turing

7. Turing’s End March 1952 Arrested for “Gross Indecency”
No denial - Saw no wrong with his actions
Convicted – given choice
Prison
Oestrogen injections
Lost security clearance for GCHQ
June 1954
Why apple?
Conspiracy theories…
Security risk
Recognition: Turing Award established (ACM, 1966)

8. 1956 Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy
Marvin Minsky
Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell
Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)

9. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy
First degree in mathematics
Graduate work on finite automata
Got interested in digital computers after Summer working at IBM
Was teaching at Dartmouth
Brought together the researchers
Labelled the field “Artificial Intelligence”
Later…
Worked on Formal Logic side of AI
Invented LISP programming language
Won Turing Award in 1971

10. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy
Marvin Minsky
Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell
Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)

11. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
Marvin Minsky
1951 built a neural net out of vacuum tubes, to train a simulated rat to get out of a maze
Combined learning with planning ahead in his Ph.D. thesis
Later…
Society of Mind idea
Work on artificial neural networks: proved perceptrons can’t solve some problems
Work in theoretical Computer Science: 2-pushdown-stack automaton = Turing Machine
Won Turing Award in 1969
Recent book: The Emotion Machine

12. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy
Marvin Minsky
Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell
Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)

13. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
Most famous of all participants,
but not for AI….
Worked on analogue computer with cogs and wheels
Showed that electromechanical relay switches could solve boolean algebra problems
digital instead of analogue
Lead to digital calculators
1948 “A Mathematical Theory of Communication”
1950 created mechanical mouse
Could find its way out of a maze
Learnt from experience
1950 wrote about chess playing computer program
Made a fortune in Las Vegas applying his maths to roulette etc.
Claude Shannon

14. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy
Marvin Minsky
Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell
Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)

15. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
Algorithmic Probability
probability of some string having been generated by an algorithm
Applied to Induction
Optimal Machine Learner
Theoretical idea…
Not computable
But can be approximated
Ray Solomonoff

16. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy
Marvin Minsky
Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell
Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)

17. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
Originally a political scientist – how bureaucracies function
Became interested in organisational decision making
Around 1954 he decided… best way to study problem-solving is to simulate on computer
Developed experimental technique of verbal protocol analysis
Interested in role of knowledge in expertise
1978 won Nobel Prize in Economics
Herbert Simon
“Over Christmas, Allen Newell and I created a thinking machine.” January 1956

18. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
Alan Newell
1955 designed a chess playing program
Later…
1983 Developed SOAR architecture
Attempting a unified theory of cognition

19. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
1956 Logic Theory Machine
Saw that theorem proving can be reduced to search
Search tree to find a proof for a theorem
Considered to be first AI program
1957 General Problem Solver
Heuristics
Means-ends analysis
1975 won Turing Award
Alan Newell
Herbert Simon

20. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy
Marvin Minsky
Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell
Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)

21. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
Developed a checkers playing program
Developed alpha-beta tree idea
Made his program learn to improve itself
1962 his program beat a state champion
Arthur Samuel

22. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy
Marvin Minsky
Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell
Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)

23. “We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence be carried out during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture that every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it. An attempt will be made to find how to make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans, and improve themselves. We think that a significant advance can be made in one or more of these problems if a carefully selected group of scientists work on it together for a summer.”
McCarthy et al 1955

24. “We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence be carried out during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture that every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it. An attempt will be made to find how to make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans, and improve themselves. We think that a significant advance can be made in one or more of these problems if a carefully selected group of scientists work on it together for a summer.”
McCarthy et al 1955

25. “We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence be carried out during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture that every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it. An attempt will be made to find how to make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans, and improve themselves. We think that a significant advance can be made in one or more of these problems if a carefully selected group of scientists work on it together for a summer.”
McCarthy et al 1955

26. “We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence be carried out during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture that every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it. An attempt will be made to find how to make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans, and improve themselves. We think that a significant advance can be made in one or more of these problems if a carefully selected group of scientists work on it together for a summer.”
McCarthy et al 1955

27. “We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence be carried out during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture that every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it. An attempt will be made to find how to make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans, and improve themselves. We think that a significant advance can be made in one or more of these problems if a carefully selected group of scientists work on it together for a summer.”
McCarthy et al 1955

28. Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy
Marvin Minsky
Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell
Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)

29. 1956 Dartmouth Conference: What was achieved?
Not much
People didn’t agree on the format and weren’t all there together
Newell and Simon didn’t spend much time…
Too busy working on their logic theorist
McCarthy was disappointed
“The main reason the 1956 Dartmouth workshop didn't live up to my expectations is that AI is harder than we thought.” (McCarthy in 2006)
But got people to know each other…

30. AI Developments from

31. Main Thrusts of Work in Early Days…
Reduce the search tree for search programs
For example, search programs for:
Logic Theorems
Geometry theorems
Algebra
Make computers learn for themselves
For example:
Chess playing machines
Checkers playing machines
Pattern recognition

32. Newell and Simon’s progress…

33. “It is not my aim to surprise or shock you – but the simplest way I can summarize is to say that there are now in the world machines that can think, that can learn and that can create. Moreover, their ability to do these things is going to increase rapidly until – in a visible future – the range of problems they can handle will be coextensive with the range to which the human mind has been applied.”
Herbert Simon, 1957

34. Newell and Simon’s progress…
Discovered that humans don’t really act like Logic Theorist
Psychologists Moore and Anderson had pioneered “think aloud” experiments
Other AI researchers were merely concerned with programs that performed well
Newell and Simon wanted programs that solved problems in the same ways as humans
They branched off…
More Cognitive Science than core AI
Developed the general problem solver (GPS)
Using heuristics
Using means-end analysis
Solved monkey-chair-banana type problems

35. Work at IBM… Minsky hired Herbert Gelernter to work on new IBM 704
Geometry Theorem Prover
Gave visual input of geometry problem by coding it in (not camera)
This input reduced branching factor from 1000 to 5
Took Gelernter 3 yrs to program it (much longer than expected)
Also at IBM
Samuel working on his checkers program
Alex Bernstein working on chess program

36. Trouble at IBM… AI work noticed by popular press
Publicity attracted attention of IBM shareholders
Asked T. J. Watson (president of IBM)
explain why research dollars were being used for "frivolous matters"
IBM noticed that customers were frightened of idea of "electronic brains" and "thinking machines“
1960 Internal report prepared recommended IBM stop AI
IBM told customers
computers will only do what they were told
Bernstein became psychiatrist
Gelernter became physicist
Samuel went to Europe

37. McCarthy’s progress… Developed LISP programming language
List Processing
Makes it easy to program AI ideas
Makes it easy for a program to alter its own instructions
McCarthy wanted programs to add to their own commonsense
To deduce consequences
Started looking at IF-THEN rules (like later expert systems)
LISP was heavy on computer power – more useful in 1970s
McCarthy also pioneered idea of time-sharing computers

38. Minsky’s progress at MIT…
Sputnik left US behind technologically
US created DARPA
1963 MIT got over $2M for Machine Aided Cognition
MAC project brought MIT about $3M a year in grants thereafter
Minsky’s student James Slagle worked on SAINT program
Solved symbolic integration problems
Later evolved into MACSYMA