1. 1 EXAKT SKF Phase 1, Session 2 Principles

2. 2 The CBM Decision supported by EXAKT Given the condition today, the asset mgr. takes one of three decisions: 1.Intervene immediately and conduct maintenance on an equipment at this time, or to 2.Plan to conduct maintenance within a specified time, or to 3.Defer the maintenance decision until the next CBM observation

3. 3 The conventional CBM decision method from Nowlan & Heap, (Moubray) Condition Working age P-F Interval Detectable indication of a failing process Detection of the potential failure CBM inspection interval: Potential failure, P < P-F Interval Net P-F Interval Functional failure, F

4. 4 Moubray (RCM II) addresses two extreme cases F2F2 F3F3 F1F1 023451 Failures occur on a random basis Inspections at 2 month intervals PF detected at least 2 months before FF. PF FF Age (years) Special case 1 – completely random (age independent, dependent only on condition monitoring data) 02030405010 Operating Age (x 1000 km) PF FF Tread depth Special case 2 – completely age dependent P-F interval At least 5000 km Maximum rate of wear Tread depth when new = 12 mm Potential failure = 3 mm Functional failure = 2 mm Cross-section of tire tread Many failure modes are both age and condition indicator dependent. (The age parameter often summarizes the influence of all those wear related factors not explicitly included in the hazard model.)

5. 5 The P-F Interval method Assumes that: 1.The potential failure set point, P, of an identifiable condition is known, and that 2.The P-F interval is known and is reasonably consistent (or its range of variation can be estimated), and that 3.It is practical to monitor the item at intervals shorter than the P-F interval

6. 6 EXAKT has two ways of deciding whether an item is in a “P” state 1.A decision based solely on failure probability. 2.A decision based on the combination of failure probability and the quantifiable consequences of the failure, and

7. 7 The two methods 1.Age data 2.CM data 3.Cost data Hazard Model Transition Model RULE Failure probability Maintenance Decision Cost and Availability Model

8. 8 Assumptions and models used in EXAKT

9. 9 First assumption An item's state of health is encoded within measurable condition indicators (which, of course, is the underlying premise of CBM). Z(t) = (Z 1 (t), Z 2 (t),..., Z m (t)) (eq. 1) Each variable Z i (t) in the vector contains the value of a certain measurement at that discreet moment, t We would like to predict T (>t) given the state of the vector (process) at t.

10. 10 2 nd assumption where β is the shape parameter, η is the scale parameter, and γ is the coefficient vector for the condition monitoring variable (covariate) vector. The parameters β, η, and γ, will need to be estimated in the numerical solution.

11. 11 3 rd assumption In EXAKT, it is assumed that Z (d) (t) follows a non- homogeneous Markov failure time model described by the transition probabilities L ij (x,t)=P(T>t, Z (d) (t)= R j (z) |T>x, Z (d) (x)= R i (z) ) ( eq. 3) where: x is the current working age, t (t > x) is a future working age, and i and j are the states of the covariates at x and t respectively Z (d) (t) is the vector of “representative” values of each condition indicator. It is the probability that the item survives until t and the state of Z (d) (t) is j given that the item survives until x and the previous state, Z (d) (x), was i. The transition behavior can then be displayed in a Markov chain transition probability matrix, for example, that of the next slide.

12. 12 Representative values State 4 State 3 State 2 State 1 Representative value

13. 13 Transition probability matrix Table 1: Transition probability matrix T,P Future T,P Curren t 1,11,21,32,12,22,33,13,23,3 1,1.467.1762e-4.162.1883.2e-32.5e-42.7e-30 1,2.42.1842.4e-4.16.235e-33e-43.8e-30 1,3.36.1787.7e-4.16.268.0293e-44.4e-30 2,1.409.1672.2e-4.183.2324.8e-33.6e-43.9e-30 2,2.35.1752.9e-4.18.2827.8e-34e-45.3e-30 2,3.26.1641.6e-3.16.334.0664e-45.8e-30 3,1.338.1632.5e-4.19.2916.4e-31.5e-31.3e-20 3,2.31.1712.9e-4.188.328.2e-31.2e-31.2e-20 3,3000000001

14. 14 4 th assumption The combined PHM and transition models For a short interval of time, values of transition probabilities can be approximated as: L ij (x,x+Δx)=(1-h(x,R i (z) )Δx) p ij (x,x+ Δx) ( eq. 6 ) eq. 6 Equation 6 means that we can, in small steps, calculate the future probabilities for the state of the covariate process Z (d) (t). Using the hazard calculated (from Equation 2) at each successive state we determine the transition probabilities for the next small increment in time, from which we again calculate the hazard, and so on.

15. 15 Making CBM decisions Two ways

16. 16 CBM decisions based on probability The conditional reliability function can be expressed as: (eq. 7) The “conditional reliability” is the probability of survival to t given that 1.failure has not occurred prior to the current time x, and 2.CM variables at current time x are R i (z) Equation 7 points out that the conditional reliability is equal to the sum of the conditional transition probabilities from state i to all possible states.

17. 17 Remaining useful life (RUL) Once the conditional reliability function is calculated we can obtain the conditional density from its derivative. We can also find the conditional expectation of T - t, termed the remaining useful life (RUL), as (eq. 8) In addition, the conditional probability of failure in a short period of time Δt can be found as For a maintenance engineer, predictive information based on current CM data, such as RUL and probability of failure in a future time period, can be valuable for risk assessment and planning maintenance. (eq. 9)

18. 18 CBM decisions based on economics and probability Control-limit policy: perform preventive maintenance at T d if T d < T; or perform reactive maintenance at T if T d ≥ T, Where: T d =inf{t≥0:Kh(t,Z (d) (t))≥d} Where: K is the cost penalty associated with functional failure, h(t,Z (d) (t) is the hazard, and d (> 0) is the risk control limit for performing preventive maintenance. Here risk is defined as the functional failure cost penalty K times the hazard rate.control limit (Eq. 10)

19. 19 The long-run expected cost of maintenance (preventive and reactive) per unit of working age will be: (eq. 11)eq. 11 where C p is the cost of preventive maintenance, C f = C p +K is the cost of reactive maintenance, Q(d)=P(T d ≥T) is the probability of failure prior to a preventive action, W(d)=E(min{T d,T}) is the expected time of maintenance (preventive or reactive).

20. 20 Best CBM policy Let d* be the value of d that minimizes the right-hand side of Equation 11. It corresponds to T* = T d*. Makis and Jardine in ref. 3 have shown that for a non-decreasing hazard function h(t,Z(d)(t), rule T* is the best possible replacement policy (ref. 4). Equation 10 can be re-written for the optimal control limit policy as: T*=T d* =inf{t≥0:Kh(t,Z(d)(t))≥d*} (eq. 12)ref. 3ref. 4eq. 12 For the PHM model with Weibull baseline distribution, it can be interpreted as (ref. 2))ref. 2 (eq. 13) Where The numerical solution to Equation 13, which is described in detail in (Ref. 7) and (Ref. 8).Ref. 7Ref. 8

21. 21 The “warning level” function Working age Plot the weighted sum of the value of the significant CM variables (covariates). On the same coordinate system plot the function g(t). The combined graph can be viewed as an economical decision chart. Shows whether the data suggests that the component has to be renewed.

22. 22 5 th assumption In the decision chart, we approximate the value of by Decision chart

23. 23 Numercal example A CBM program on a fleet of Nitrogen compressors monitors the failure mode “second stage piston ring failure”. Real time data from sensors and process computers are collected in a PI historian. Work orders record the as-found state of the rings at maintenance. The next four slides illustrate 4 EXAKT optimal CBM decisions

24. 24 Decision 1- Only Probability

25. 25 Decision 2-Probability and cost minimization

26. 26 Decision 3-Probability and availability maximization

27. 27 Decision 4-Probability and profitability maximization