1. Chapter 6 – Process Synchronisation (Pgs 225 – 267)

2. Overview  Consider a block of shared memory  Process P wants to write data to the shared memory while Process R wants to read the data  Up until now, we have needed to use a synchronous system call to cause the reader to wait until the write is complete  The approach works because the synchronous system calls provide mutual exclusion

3. Mutual Exclusion  When a resource (i.e., memory) can be accessed by only one process at a time, we say that the resource is mutually exclusive  The code in each process to access the mutually exclusive resource is known as a critical section  Only one processes critical section may run at a time (and hence only one process can access the resource at a time)

4. Race Conditions  Pre-emption means that, essentially, the statements of any two processes can be interleaved to create any ordering of their parts  If the ordering of the parts affects the outcome of computation, we say that a race condition exists  To prevent race conditions, we use mutual exclusion and critical sections

5. Example  x++ increments x  R1  mem[x]; R1  R1 + 1; mem[x]  R1;  What if P1 does x++ and P2 does x--? End result is that x should never change regardless of the ordering  Assume x starts at 4.. R1  mem[x]; R1  R1 + 1; *Pre-empt* R2  mem[x]; R2  R2 - 1 ; *Pre-empt* mem[x]  R1; *Pre-empt* mem[x]  R2;.... x is now 3, not 4.... Idea: x++ must fully execute before x– (or reverse)

6. Critical Section  Must provide the following 1. Mutual Exclusion: Only one process at a time can be in their critical section 2. Progress: Processes must be allowed to make progress and be allowed (eventually) to enter their critical section 3. Bounded Waiting: There is a limit on how many times other processes can perform their critical sections and thus block any other process from entering theirs

7. Peterson's Solution  Basic software solution for processes i and j do { flag[i] = TRUE; turn = j; while (flag[j] && turn==j); /* Critical Section */ flag[i] = FALSE; /* Remainder */ } while (TRUE); Highly concurrent (threaded) CPUs can invalidate this solution

8. Locks  Use a lock to protect critical section  Process must acquire the lock before entering and release it after leaving  Both hardware and software solutions are possible  Simple with hardware (disable interrupts when shared variable – lock – is being modified), but inefficient and potentially dangerous

9. Lock Example boolean TestAndSet (bool *t) { // If False: return false, set to true // If True: return true, set to true bool rv = *t; *t = TRUE; return rv; } Then... do { // Loop while lock is set while (TestAndSet(&lock)); /* Critical section */ lock = FALSE; /* remainder */ } Works if TestAndSet is Atomic and cannot be interrupted

10. Problems  Hardware solutions are difficult to use since they only provide mutual exclusion  Bounded waiting requires considerable and complex "extra" code (see Fig. 6.8)  More complex for n processes than for 2  Difficult for engineers to implement as they require memory access

11. Semaphores  Integer variable accessed using on the operations wait and signal wait(s) { while (s <= 0) ; s--; } signal(s) { s++; } wait and signal must be atomic in their manipulation of s!

12. Using a Semaphore do { wait(mutex) ; /* critical section */ signal(mutex) } while (TRUE); Main problem is "busy waiting" – constant checking of mutex in wait requires CPU instructions (being busy) to do nothing except wait

13. Semaphores++  Semaphores with busy waiting are often called "spinlocks"  Can be generalised for bounded resources usable by more than one process  Simple to program with and provide bounded waiting  Can remove busy waiting if we tell the kernel to use a queue for the semaphore and block all processes that are waiting  Signal would wake up a waiting process

14. Deadlock + Starvation  When two processes are each waiting for a resource held by the other process "Deadlock" can occur  E.g., 4 cars approach an interesection, each blocking one of the 4 roads out, each waits for the others to move and clear a road forward  Starvation occurs from infinite waiting  E.g., process that is supposed to do the wakeup fails and the wakeup is never sent

15. Priority Inversion  Requires more than 2 priorities  Higher priority process blocked from critical section by lower priority processes  Solution: Priority Inheritance  Process inherits the priority of the highest process that is blocked

16. Classic Problems  Bounded Buffer (Producer/Consumer)  Readers-Writers: Simultaneous reads, writes block everything  Dining Philosophers

17. Monitors  Semaphores only work when used properly, by all processes  Solution is to pre-code the critical sections  A Monitor is an ADT  Only one thread at a time can be in a monitor  Usually provides a way for a thread to yield the monitor (or block) so another thread can run  Many different models of monitors (See Buhr et al. for details)

18. Posix Semaphores Provided by semaphore.h:  sem_init() – creates and initialises it  sem_open() – opens it  sem_close() – closes it after we are done  sem_post() – releases the semaphore  sem_wait() – obtains the semaphore  sem_trywait() – asynchronous wait

19. To Do:  Work on Lab 4  Read Chapter 6 (pgs 225-267; this lecture)  Read Chapter 7 (pgs 283-306; next lecture)