1. CIVIL ENGINEERING

2. Civil engineering work includes: dams embankments motorways bridges buildings cuttings quarries tunnels mines All these need to take into account: 1.Geological factors 2.Geological rock properties rock type fracture/joints weathering dip of rocks folding/faulting cleavage water table depth porosity/permeability rock strength Geological factors Rock properties

4. Dams & Reservoirs

5. Water supplyPower generation Irrigation Flood control Dams & reservoirs are constructed for a wide range of uses:

6. Gravity Dams Types of Dams There are many different designs of dam, which include two principal types: Arch Dams

7. Gravity Dam Arch Dam

8. When building dams & reservoirs geologists must take into account: geological structures rock properties

9. Valley width & depth Geological structures & rock properties affecting dams & reservoirs Reservoir surface area Valley long profile Rock permeability Slope & depth of water table Faults, joints & fracture density Dip of rock strata Weathering Hydraulic gradient Rock strength Earthquakes

10. Gravity Dams Types of Dams Across Constricted Valleys Arch Dams These rely on their weight to hold them in position and thereby impound the water. They are usually made from reinforced earth, masonry or concrete. The arch squeezes together as the water pushes against it. The stress of the impounded water is also transmitted horizontally into the rock of the valley sides. These are made from thin concrete walls.

11. Dam construction across a valley Construction of banks completely enclosing an area of flat-lying terrain Excavation of depressions and underground caverns Enclosing estuary mouths with dams Reservoirs may be constructed in a variety of ways: However, the most efficient and cost-effective method is the construction of dams across constricted valley sections.

12. Valley shape and rock structure Foundation strength Porosity and permeability Zones of structural weakness and high permeability In building major structures like arch dams and gravity dams geological factors and geological rock properties must be taken into account. These include:

13. Narrow, deep and steep-sided valleys are the key characteristics looked for in valley shape. This is due to: Valley constriction minimises dam length reducing costs Narrow width of dam makes it structurally stronger Deep valleys maximise water storage 1. Valley Shape: Ideally, above a chosen dam site a valley should widen and remain as flat as possible

14. The rock structure surrounding the reservoir has to be looked at carefully: Synclinally folded rocks dip towards the reservoir, reducing possible leakage but increasing their liability to slip into the reservoir. Anticlines increase leakage but are less prone to slip. Other zones of weakness include fault zones which must be avoided. Also fault zones may have associated earthquakes. 2. Rock Structure: The rocks of the valley sides must not be liable to slippage because as the reservoir fills, the water table rises to lubricate zones of weakness.

15. Gravity Dams 3. Foundation Strength: Obviously good foundations are highly desirable because the force of the dam must not exceed the strength of the ground. Or it will fail! Beds which dip up away from the dam provide the strongest foundations. As do unweathered igneous and metamorphic rocks. Where they are questionable or poor, the location of a dam site becomes an exercise in locating areas where either the rocks and soils can best be improved or the dam designed to compensate for the deficiencies of the ground: Weak rocks in the foundations, such as those composed of sediments, compressible and weathered strata are either strengthened or removed.

16. Gravity Dams Where foundations are weak (clays and mudstones) gravity dams made out of earth are used, in order to spread the weight. On firmer foundations (igneous and metamorphic rocks) gravity dams made out of concrete and masonry are used. The foundations for gravity dams should show limited compaction when loaded with the weight of the dam. Consequently deeply weathered sites or poorly consolidated glacial deposits are avoided. Existing fractures or bedding should be minimal, and should dip upstream.

17. Arch Dams The construction of arch dams relies on the rock mass strength of the valley sides. Where there is sufficient strength, thin arch dams, which are cheap and economical to build, may be adequate. However, since the stresses imposed in such situations are horizontal instead of vertical, an absence of fractures parallel to the valley sides is essential. In general, only rocks with very high rock mass strength are suitable for building arch dams, and in all cases uniformity of the rock body is desirable.

18. Gravity Dams 4. Porosity & Permeability: The porosity and permeability of the rocks surrounding the reservoir and the dam indicate sources of potential leakage. Such as: Permeable soilsAquifersFaultsJoints A dam should not be built on a permeable base because leakage under a dam generates pressure which lifts the dam and may cause it to fail. Beds dipping away from the reservoir e.g. anticlines Rocks with calcite cement may become more permeable as the calcite dissolves away.

25. Geological Factors Rock Properties Hydrogeology Rock type Weathering Structural weaknesses (bedding, joints, faults & cleavage) Depth to rockhead Rock strength Porosity Permeability Depth to water table