1. Surrey Mini-School Lecture 2 R. F. Casten

2. Outline Introduction, survey of data – what nuclei do Independent particle model and residual interactions – Particles in orbits in the nucleus – Residual interactions: results and simple physical interpretation – Multipole decomposition – Seniority – the best thing since buffalo mozzarella Collective models -- Geometrical – Vibrational models – Deformed rotors – Axially asymmetric rotors – Quantum phase transitions Linking the microscopic and macroscopic – p-n interactions The Interacting Boson Approximation (IBA) model

5. Independent Particle Model – Uh –oh !!! Trouble shows up

6. Mottelson (Nobel Prize for the Unified Model, 1975) – ANL, Sept. 2006 Shell gaps, magic numbers, and shell structure are not merely details but are fundamental to our understanding of one of the most basic features of nuclei – independent particle motion. If we don’t understand the basic quantum levels of nucleons in the nucleus, we don’t understand nuclei. Moreover, perhaps counter-intuitively, the emergence of nuclear collectivity itself depends on independent particle motion (and the Pauli Principle). Shell Structure

7. Independent Particle Model Some great successes (for nuclei that are “doubly magic plus 1”). Clearly inapplicable for nuclei with more than one particle outside a doubly magic “core”. In fact, in such nuclei, it is not even defined. Thus, as is, it is applicable to only a couple % of nuclei. Residual interactions and angular momentum coupling to the rescue.

8. Shell Model with residual interactions – mostly 2-particle systems Simple forces, simple physical interpretation

9. Residual Interactions Need to consider a more complete Hamiltonian: H = H 0 + H residual H residual reflects interactions not in the single particle potential. NOT a minor perturbation. In fact, these residual interactions determine almost everything we know about most nuclei. Start with 2- particle system, that is, a nucleus “doubly magic + 2”. H residual is H 12 (r 12 ) Consider two identical valence nucleons with j 1 and j 2. Two questions: What total angular momenta j 1 + j 2 = J can be formed? What are the energies of states with these J values?

10. Coupling of two angular momenta j 1 + j 2 All values from: j 1 – j 2 to j 1 + j 2 (j 1 = j 2 ) Example: j 1 = 3, j 2 = 5: J = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 BUT: For j 1 = j 2 : J = 0, 2, 4, 6, … ( 2j – 1) (Why these?) /

11. How can we know which total J values are obtained for the coupling of two identical nucleons in the same orbit with total angular momentum j? Several methods: easiest is the “m-scheme”.

13. Can we obtain such simple results by considering residual interactions?

14. Separate radial and angular coordinates

18. Extending the IPM with residual interactions Consider now an extension of, say, the Ca nuclei to 43 Ca, with three particles in a j= 7/2 orbit outside a closed shell? How do the three particle angular momenta, j, couple to give final total J values? If we use the m-scheme for three particles in a 7/2 orbit the allowed J values are 15/2, 11/2, 9/2, 7/2, 5/2, 3/2. For the case of J = 7/2, two of the particles must have their angular momenta coupled to J = 0, giving a total J = 7/2 for all three particles. For the J = 15/2, 11/2, 9/2, 5/2, and 3/2, there are no pairs of particles coupled to J = 0. Since a J = 0 pair is the lowest configuration for two particles in the same orbit, that case, namely total J = 7/2, must lie lowest !!

19. Treat as 20 protons and 20 neutrons forming a doubly magic core with angular momentum J = 0. The lowest energy for the 3-particle configuration is therefore J = 7/2. Note that the key to this is the results we have discussed for the 2-particle system !! 43 Ca

23. How can we understand the energy patterns that we have seen for two – particle spectra with residual interactions? Easy – involves a very beautiful application of the Pauli Principle.

25. x

26. This is the most important slide: understand this and all the key ideas about residual interactions will be clear !!!!!

28. R 4/2 < 2.0

36. Backups

38. Residual interactions –Pairing – coupling of two identical nucleons to angular momentum zero. No preferred direction in space, therefore drives nucleus towards spherical shapes –p-n interactions – generate configuration mixing, unequal magnetic state occupations, therefore drive towards collective structures and deformation –Monopole component of p-n interactions generates changes in single particle energies and shell structure Shell model too crude. Need to add in extra interactions among valence nucleons outside closed shells. These dominate the evolution of Structure

40. So, we will have a Hamiltonian H = H 0 + H resid. where H 0 is that of the Ind. Part. Model We need to figure out what H resid. does.

41. Think of the three particles as 2 + 1. How do the 2 behave? We have now seen that they prefer to form a J = 0 state.