1. Petri Nets Invented by Carl Adam Petri in 1962 Concurrent systems with timing problems  Synchronization, race problem, deadlock A petri net consists of four parts:  A finite set of places P = {p 1, p 2, …, p n } n  0  A finite set of transitions T = {t 1, t 2, …, t m } m  0; P and T are disjoint  An input function I: T  P  ; a mapping from transitions to bags of places  An output function O: T  P  ; a mapping from transitions to bags of places Figure 10.16 June 26, 2000

2. Petri Nets (2) Marking  Assignment of tokens to places  M: P  {0, 1, 2, …, } Figure 10.17 Enabled transitions - ready to fire The number of tokens is not conserved Non-deterministic - if more than one transition is able to fire, then any one of them may be fired A marked Petri net is a 5-tuple (P, T, I, O, M) Extension to Petri net  Inhibitor arc (Figure 10.20)  In general, a transition is enabled if there is at least one token on each of its (normal) input arcs and no tokens on any of its inhibitor input arcs.

3. Petri Nets (3) Elevator Problem  n elevators - An elevator is represented as a token  m floors - Each floor is represented as a place F f  A token in a place denotes that an elevator is at floor f First constraint  Each elevator has a set of m buttons, one for each floor. These illuminate when pressed and cause the elevator to visit the corresponding floor. The illumination is canceled when the corresponding floor is visited by the elevator. New places are included to model the constraint  EB f - A place; a token in EB f denotes that the elevator button for floor f is illuminated. Figure 10.21 In classical Petri net theory, transitions are instantaneous Therefore, timed Petri nets are introduced [Coolahan and Roussopoulos, 1983]

4. Petri Nets (4) Second constraint  Each floor, except the first floor and top floor, has two buttons, one to request an up-elevator and one to request a down-elevator. These buttons illuminate when pressed. The illumination is canceled when an elevator visits the floor and then moves in the desired direction. New places are included to model the constraint  FB fu and FB fd - a token in FB fu (or FB fd ) denotes that the floor button for requesting up-elevator (or down-elevator) in floor f is illuminated. Figure 10.22

5. Z Major components of a Z specification  Given set, data types, and constants  State definition (state schema)  Initial state  Operations (operation schema) Give Sets  A method of introducing new types and is used when the internal structure of the elements is irrelevant  [Button, Elevator] - the set of buttons and the set of elevators Schema  A schema may be used to describe some part of the state or an operation on the state.  The name of the schema has global scope; its variables have local scope

6. Z (2) A schema can be presented in two different forms: horizontal form vertical form Figure 10.24

7. Z (3) State schema (for specifying states)  Group together all the relevant information that belongs to a state description  A state is just a collection of sets and objects and some predicates defined on those things  Figure 10.24 Initial state  Describes the state when the system is first turned on  Button_Init = [Button_State’|pushed’ =  ] Operation schemas  Describes the effects (in terms of the state change) of operations  Figure 10.25  The precondition must be true before the operation can be invoked (is applicable)  (x) However, if the operation is invoked without the precondition being satisfied, unspecified (an therefore unpredictable) results can occur.

8. Comparison of Specification Techniques Figure 10.27

9. Testing During the Specification Phase Walkthroughs and inspection  Will discuss later when we go to Chapter 5 if time is available

10. Case Tools For The Specification Phase A graphical tool for DFD, Petri Net, ER diagram … A data dictionary. The above two tools should be integrated so that any change made to a data component is automatically reflected in the corresponding part of the specification. Data Dictionary REFUNDS -------------- REFUNDS -------------- Process REFUNDS

11. Chapter 11: Object-oriented Analysis A well-designed object with high cohesion and low coupling models all aspects of one physical entity The details of how this is implemented are hidden Objects are essentially independent units with a well-defined interface Objects are easily and safely maintainable, the chance of regression fault is reduced Objects are reusable which is further enhanced by inheritance Better for large scale product by combining the fundamental building blocks of software than structured paradigm

12. Three steps of Object-oriented Analysis OOA consists of three main steps [Schach]  Use case modeling Use case diagram and associated scenarios Function perspective  Class modeling Determine the classes and their attributes Determine the interrelationships between the classes Class diagram Data perspective  Dynamic modeling Determine the actions performed by or to each class or subclasses State diagram (Statechart diagram in UML) Behavioral perspective (or dynamic)

13. Use-Case Modeling A use case describes the functionality of the product to be constructed. A scenario is a specific instance of an use case. Use case diagram - Figure 11.1  Actors - external entities, not necessarily human beings A normal scenario - Figure 11.2  Withdraw cash An abnormal scenario - Figure 11.3  Attempt to withdraw cash over the daily limit

14. Class Modeling Extracting classes and their associated attributes  Difficult to get it right the first time  Methods are assigned to classes during the OO design (OOD) phase How to determine classes? Deduce from the scenarios CRC cards (when the developers have domain expertise) Noun extraction (for developers without domain expertise)  Object selection criteria  Object elimination criteria

15. Dynamic Modeling Produce a state diagram for each class with non-trivial behavior One-elevator Elevator Controller - Figure 11.6 Compare Figure 11.2 with 11.6 (Use scenarios to test the state diagram)

16. UML Outline “Software Architecture and the UML” by Grady Booch  http://www.rational.com/uml/