1. Recap: Interfaces A class is a logical abstraction, but an object has physical existence. access-specifier can be: public: Allow functions or data to be accessible to other parts of the program. private: May be accessed only by other members of the class. protected: Used when inheritance is involved; not discussed yet, will do later today

2. friends #include using namespace std; class myclass { int a, b; public: friend int sum(myclass x); //declared in the public interface void set_ab(int i, int j); }; void myclass::set_ab (int i, int j) { a = i; b = j; } // Note: sum() is not a member function of any class. int sum (myclass x) { //Because sum() is a friend of myclass, it // can directly access a and b. return x.a + x.b; } main() { myclass n; n.set_ab (3, 4); cout << sum(n); return 0; } //see friend1.cpp

3. Friends A friend function has access to all private and protected (and public of course) members of the class for which it is a friend. See friend1.cpp example See also friend1b.cpp

4. //use of friend function to access private data //members of class class Myclass{ private: int a,b; public: Myclass(int i, int j){a=i; b=j;} friend int sum(myclass x); }; //note sum is not a member function of any class int sum (Myclass x) {return x.a+x.b;} int main(){ Myclass n(3,4); cout << sum(n) << "\n"; return 0; }

5. Friends The friend function negates information hiding This is the whole idea of OO programming i.e. encapsulation We now have a way of destroying this property For this reason many programmers are not keen on the use of friend functions We will return to friends again later in this presentation.

6. Arrays of Objects We can create arrays of objects just as we can create an array of integers or doubles See ArrayofObjects1.cpp See ArrayofObjects2.cpp //this initialises //an array of // objects See ArrayofObjects3.cpp //2D array of //objects //ignore last program

7. Pointers to Objects Recall we access a structure directly or indirectly using a pointer to that structure. In like fashion we can access an object either directly or indirectly using pointers again To access an element of an object when using the actual object we use the dot notation To access a specific element of an object using the pointer we use -> (arrow link) See objectpointer1.cpp

8. Incrementing pointers As we know when a pointer is incremented(or decremented) it is increased (or decreased) in such as way that it will always point to next element of its base type See objectPointer2.cpp

9. More on friends So it is possible to allow a non-member function of any class to access the private members of a class by declaring it as a friend of the class. To make a function a friend of a class you include its prototype in the public section of a class declaration and precede it with the friend keyword

10. Demo See friend2.cpp and explain

11. #include using namespace std; class Myclass { int a, b; public: friend int sum(myclass x); void set_ab(int i, int j); }; void Myclass::set_ab (int i, int j) { a = i; b = j; } // Note: sum() is not a member function of any class. int sum (Myclass x) {//Because sum() is a friend of myclass, it can directly access a and b. return x.a + x.b; } main() { Myclass n; n.set_ab (3, 4); cout << sum(n); return 0; }

12. Assigning objects If both objects are of the same type (i.e. both objects are of the same class) then one object may be assigned to another. The following program demonstrates this See objectassignment1.cpp

13. #include using namespace std; class Myclass{ private: int a,b; public: void setab(int i,int j){a=i;b=j;} void showab(); }; void Myclass::showab(){ cout << "a is " << a << endl; cout << "b is " << b << endl; }

14. int main(){ Myclass ob1,ob2; ob1.setab(10,20); ob2.setab(0,0); cout << "ob1 before assignment" << endl; ob1.showab(); cout << endl; cout << "ob2 before assignment" << endl; ob2.showab(); cout << endl; ob2=ob1; cout << "ob1 after assignment" << endl; ob1.showab();cout << endl; cout << "ob2 after assignment" << endl; ob2.showab();cout << endl; return 0; }

15. Passing objects to functions An object can be passed to a function In the same way as any other data type. Objects are passed to functions by using the normal C++ call by-value parameter-passing convention. This means that a copy of the objects and not the object itself is passed to the function. Thus any changes made to the object inside the function do NOT affect the object used as argument to the function

16. Demonstration See passingobjects1.cpp and explain See passingobjectsbyRef.cpp and explain The comments indicate that the modification to x within f() has no affect on the object 0 inside main()