Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 1 Data and Knowledge Evolution Slides available at: Giorgos.

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 1 Data and Knowledge Evolution Slides available at: http://www.ics.forth.gr/~fgeo/Publications/WOD13.ppt Giorgos Flouris fgeo@ics.forth.gr Open Data Tutorials, May 2013

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 2 World Wide Web  WWW (and HTML) focus on human readability  Page presentation (fonts, colors, images, …)  Human understanding  Presentation  Semantical content  Content is not formally described (for a machine to understand)  WWW contains documents, not data

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 3 Problems with the Current Web  Search and access becomes difficult  Software ignorant of the semantical content of a web page  Keyword search  High recall, low precision  Terminological issues  Synonyms (heart disease = cardiac disease)  Hyponyms/hypernyms (parliament members are politicians)  Queries on the semantical content cannot be made  Fetch articles that support B. Obama’s foreign policy  Fetch the home pages of all members of the Greek Parliament

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 4 Semantic Web  The Semantic Web is an extension of the current web in which information is given well-defined meaning, better enabling computers and people to work in cooperation [BLHL01]  The Semantic Web provides a common framework that allows data to be shared and reused across application, enterprise, and community boundaries http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/  [Semantic Web] is a collaborative effort led by W3C with participation from a large number of researchers and industrial partners http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 5 Semantic Web in Practice  Web of data, rather than documents  HTML for presentation  Semantical languages for semantical content  Readable and understandable by humans and machines  Semantic Web languages, protocols, etc  Web page annotation (metadata descriptions etc)  Publication of data on the Internet  Efficient communication and manipulation of data over the Internet  Different applications  Efficient searching  Sharing of data (e-science, e-government, remote learning, …)  Linked Open Data (more on that later)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 6 Ontologies and Data (Datasets)  An ontology is an explicit specification of a shared conceptualization of a domain [Gru93]  Precise, logical account of the intended meaning of terms  Common (shared) interpretation of terms  Formal vocabulary for information exchange (humans/machines)  Ontologies (vocabularies) allow the description of data  Terminology:  Ontology = vocabulary = schema  Data = instances  Dataset = data and the related ontology (i.e., a dataset may contain schema and/or data)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 7 Dataset Dynamics  Datasets change constantly  World changes (dynamic models)  View on the world changes (new knowledge, measurements, etc)  Perspective and usage changes  Example:  Gene Ontology (information about gene products): daily versions  DBPedia: 1,4 updates/second (http://live.dbpedia.org/LiveStats/) [MLA+12]  Need methodologies to cope with the problems related to dynamicity  Evolution (modify a dataset in response to a change)  Versioning (keep track of versions and their relations)  Debugging, cleaning, repairing, quality (maintain consistency and quality in a dynamic environment)  Change monitoring, detection and propagation (identify changes and use them to synchronize remote datasets)  …

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 8 Linked (Open) Data  Datasets can be interlinked  Sharing knowledge  Reusing knowledge  Modular development  Reuse of schemas  Linked Open Data (LOD) movement  Constantly growing  31 billion triples and 295 datasets as of September 2011

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 9 Linked Open Data Cloud Diagram Linking Open Data cloud diagram, by Richard Cyganiak and Anja Jentzsch. http://lod-cloud.net/

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 10 Linked Open Data Challenges  Both a blessing and a curse  Added-value benefits  Discovery of unknown correlations, connections, relationships  Vast amount of interrelated knowledge  No central control, everyone can publish and relate to others  Quality of datasets lies/depends on different providers  A change in one dataset affects all related ones  Several new problems related to dynamics  Propagation of changes among interrelated datasets  Maintaining the quality of local datasets  Co-evolution

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 11 Scope: Dynamic Linked Datasets Dynamic Datasets Linked Datasets You are here

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 12 Purpose of This Talk  To survey different research areas related to dynamic LOD  Remote Change Management  Repair  Data and Knowledge Evolution  Categorize and classify works in each field  Broad but shallow description  Several references for more in-depth study  No claims of completeness (references are just indicative)  Two relevant surveys: [FMK+08, ZAA+13]  Emphasis on some related work done in FORTH  Will avoid technical discussion  References will be given for further details

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 13 Defining Remote Change Management  Managing the effects of remote changes on interlinked datasets  Remote changes have profound effects on local datasets  Good practices are important — Proper versioning, change logging, adaptation to remote changes, …  Attention exploded after the success of the LOD paradigm  Related research questions  How should I version my data?  How can I efficiently monitor changes in my dataset?  How can I detect changes in remote datasets?  How does the evolution of remote datasets affect my data?  How can I efficiently propagate changes from one dataset to another?

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 14 Remote Site Remote Change Management: Visualization RD 0 RD 1 Versioning, Change Monitoring Local Site LD 0 Change Detection Change Propagation LD 1

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 15 Remote Change Management: Structure  Three subfields  Versioning  Change monitoring and detection  Change propagation  Structure  Introduction, definition of subfields  Literature review  An approach for change detection [PFF+13]

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 16 Defining Repair  Assessing and improving the quality and the semantical or structural integrity of the data  Maintaining consistency, coherency, validity  Restoring consistency, coherency, validity, when violated  Assessing and improving quality  Preserve quality/integrity in the face of remote changes  Related research questions  How can I preserve the integrity and quality of my data in a dynamic and interlinked environment?  How can I guarantee consistency and validity?  How can I restore consistency and validity, if violated?

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 17 Repair: Visualization D0D0 D1D1 Repair Process (Cleaning, Debugging, Repairing, Quality Enhancement) Assessment Module (Diagnosis, Quality Assessment)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 18 Repair: Structure  Four subfields  Cleaning  Debugging  Validity repair  Quality enhancement  Structure  Introduction, definition of subfields  Literature review  An approach for validity repair [RFC11]

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 19 Defining Evolution  Modifying a dataset in response to a change in the domain or its conceptualization  Identify the result of applying new information on the dataset  Determine the result of change propagation from remote datasets  Understand the process of change  Related research questions  What is the semantics of evolution and change?  How can I efficiently compute the ideal evolution result?

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 20 Evolution: Visualization Dataset Real World Evolution Algorithm Delete_Class(…) Pull_Up_Class(…) Rename_Class(…) … D0D0 D1D1

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 21 Evolution: Summary  Evolution topics  Understanding the evolution challenges  Understanding the process of change — Balancing between philosophical and practical considerations  Cross-fertilization with belief change  Structure  Introduction, connection with belief change  Understanding the process of change  Literature review

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 22 General Structure of this Talk A.Introduction to RDF/S, DLs, OWL B.Remote change management 1.Introduction, definition of subfields 2.Literature review 3.An approach for change detection [PFF+13] C.Repair 1.Introduction, definition of subfields 2.Literature review 3.An approach for validity repair [RFC11] D.Data and Knowledge Evolution 1.Introduction, connection with belief change 2.Understanding the process of change 3.Literature review The final few slides contain citations for the references in this talk Part I (2 hours) Part II (1 hour)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 23 Talk Structure (A) A.Introduction to RDF/S, DLs, OWL B.Remote change management 1.Introduction, definition of subfields 2.Literature review 3.An approach for change detection [PFF+13] C.Repair 1.Introduction, definition of subfields 2.Literature review 3.An approach for validity repair [RFC11] D.Data and Knowledge Evolution 1.Introduction, connection with belief change 2.Understanding the process of change 3.Literature review

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 24 Datasets  Basic structures  Classes (or concepts): collections of objects (e.g., Actor, Politician)  Properties (or roles): binary relationships between objects (e.g., started_on, member_of)  Instances (or individuals): objects (e.g., Giorgos, B. Obama)  Relations between them  Subsumption (Parliament_Member subclass of Politician), instantiation (B. Obama instance of Politician), …  The allowed relations and their semantics depend on the language  Different representation languages for LOD  RDF/S, OWL

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 25 Visualization, Triples, Serialization Period Actor Event Onset Existing Stuff Birth started_on participants Define classes [Period type Class] Define properties [participants type Property] [participants domain Onset] [participants range Actor] Instantiate/define individuals [G_Birth type Birth] [Giorgos type Actor] [G_Birth participants Giorgos] Define hierarchies [Event subClass Period] G_Birth Giorgos participants VisualizationTriple RepresentationSerialization (RDF/XML) instantiation subsumption

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 26 RDF and RDFS  An RDF dataset consists of triples  RDFS adds semantics  Subsumption hierarchies (classes and properties) — Transitive  Instantiation — Inheritance, implicit instantiation  Sometimes more than subsumption/instantiation is needed  Combining concepts, roles to form more complex relations — Concept definitions: a mother is a female who has a child — Other knowledge: all items stored in warehouse X are flammable  Constraints on data — Each person must have one mother

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 27 Extensions of RDF/S: DLs (1/2)  Description Logics (DLs)  http://dl.kr.org/  Formal underpinning of web representation languages  Family of logical formalisms — Well-defined semantics — Model-theoretic reasoning based on interpretations  Formally studied — Expressiveness, reasoning tools, computational complexity, …  Components  Individuals: specific objects (instances) – Giorgos  Concepts: sets of individuals (classes) – Parent  Roles: sets of pairs of individuals (properties) – has_child  Operators: , ⊓, , {.}, ⊤, …  Connectives: ⊑, ≡, …

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 28 Extensions of RDF/S: DLs (2/2)  Definitions, partial definitions, constraints, subsumptions, …  A mother is a female who has a child — Mother ≡  has_child ⊓ Female  Each person must have one mother — Person ⊑  has_child -1.Mother  A great variety of DLs (trade-off involved)  Different properties  Different expressive power  Different reasoning complexity

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 29 Extensions of RDF/S: OWL  OWL (Web Ontology Language)  http://www.w3.org/2004/OWL/  General-purpose representation language  Compatible with the architecture of the Semantic Web  A family of languages  Flavors: OWL-Lite, OWL-DL, OWL Full  Profiles: OWL 2 EL, OWL 2 QL, OWL 2 RL  Different expressiveness (and complexity)  Each corresponds to a specific DL  Useful from a modeling perspective  Expressive but not too complex  Appealing computationally

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 30 Representation Languages in LOD  Mostly RDF  With RDFS semantics — Instantiations — Class subsumption — Property subsumption is rare  Some OWL  Mostly OWL Lite  Extensive use of owl:sameAs — Often abusing it [HHM+10]  OWL 2 profiles are gaining ground

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 31 Talk Structure (B1) A.Introduction to RDF/S, DLs, OWL B.Remote change management 1.Introduction, definition of subfields 2.Literature review 3.An approach for change detection [PFF+13] C.Repair 1.Introduction, definition of subfields 2.Literature review 3.An approach for validity repair [RFC11] D.Data and Knowledge Evolution 1.Introduction, connection with belief change 2.Understanding the process of change 3.Literature review

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 32 Motivation for Remote Change Management  Crucial problem for dynamic linked datasets  Linking: datasets linked to other datasets (e.g., vocabularies)  Dynamics: changes cause problems to linked datasets  No central curation or control — No control over (or knowledge of) other datasets’ evolution process  Curators don’t bother annotating and logging changes — Temporal and versioning information is usually missing [RPH+12]  Remote change management seeks solutions to allow:  Keeping track of versions  Restoring previous versions  Assessing compatibility of versions  Monitoring and detecting changes  Tracing back the evolution history (of datasets, concepts, …) — For visualization and understanding  Propagating changes to synchronize linked datasets DRDR DLDL uses

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 33 Subfields of Remote Change Management  Remote Change Management  Versioning — Keep track of versions  Change monitoring and detection — Monitoring: record changes as they happen — Detection: identify changes after they happen  Change propagation — Propagate changes across linked datasets for synchronization purposes

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 34 Versioning  Versioning  Keep track of versions  Identify different versions of a dataset  Enable transparent access to the “correct” version (smooth interoperation)  Issues involved  Identification — Determine which versions to store and how to identify them — Manually or automatically (syntactical, semantical considerations) — Packaging of changes  Relation between versions — A sequence or a tree  Compatibility information — Backwards/forwards compatibility and how to determine it (often manually) — Dataset-wide compatibility or fine-grained compatibility (e.g., at resource level) — Metadata on the different versions  Transparent access — Relate versions with (compatible) data sources, applications etc

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 35 Change Monitoring and Detection  Change monitoring  Record changes as they happen — Manual (error-prone and often incorrect) — Automatic (not used in practice)  In the good will of the dataset owner  Sometimes change logs are inaccessible  Change detection  Identify changes after they happen  Based on the previous and current versions  In both cases, a change language is required  Supported set of changes, along with their semantics  Can be low-level or high-level DRDR DLDL uses

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 36 Change Propagation  Change propagation  Communicate changes to linked datasets for synchronization  Push-based or pull-based propagation  Push-based: locally-initiated, via “registration” or via monitoring and versioning  Pull-based: consumer-initiated  Communication based on deltas (rather than versions)  Reduce communication overhead  Reduce storage requirements  On average, 2-3% of a dataset changes between versions [OK02]  Deltas are based on a language of changes

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 38 Versioning Approaches (1/3)  Capture different aspects of versioning, such as:  Detecting versions  Storing versions efficiently  Allow cross-snapshot queries — Find gene products whose functions have not changed in the last 50 versions — Determine price fluctuation for x along different versions of the product catalog  Early versioning approaches inspired by SVN  Good for files, not directly adaptable to semantical languages  SHOE language [HH00]  Machine-readable version information (e.g., compatibility)  Provided by curator as SHOE statements  Memento [SSN+10]  Fine-grained versioning at URI level (resources, web pages)  Machine-readable version information, in the HTTP header — Timestamps, traversal information (prior/current versions) etc

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 39 Versioning Approaches (2/3)  Theoretical foundations for versioning [HP04]  Formal definitions to capture notions such as: — Compatibility (between versions) — Commitment (resources committing to a certain ontology) — Ontology perspectives (the part of the web committing to an ontology)  Temporal approaches [HS05, PTC05, KLGE07]  For capturing temporal relations between versions  For allowing cross-snapshot queries  Versioning in multi-editor environments [RSDT08]  Via change monitoring

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 40 Versioning Approaches (3/3)  Automatically detecting version relationships [AAM09]  Using heuristics based on URIs  Study of “relatedness” between versions [CQ13]  A model of “relatedness” between vocabularies from various sources  Similar to links in web pages  POI: Partial Order Index [TTA08]  Efficient method for storing versions and their differences  Stores several versions, exploiting their common triples for efficient storage

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 41 Change Languages (1/2)  Change languages necessary for monitoring, detection, propagation  Granularity  Low-level (or atomic, or elementary) — Simple add/remove operations — Add(s,p,o), Delete(s,p,o) — Simple to detect and define — Focus on machine-readability: determinism, well-defined semantics  High-level (or complex, or composite) — More coarse-grained, compact, closer to editor’s perception and intuition — Generalize_Domain(P,A), Delete_Class(A) — More interesting; harder to detect and define — Focus on human-understandability: often unclear and/or informal semantics

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 42 Change Languages (2/2)  Many different high-level languages (no standard)  [HGR12, JAP09, PFF+13, SK03, AH06, DA09, PTC07, …]  Some are domain-specific (e.g., [HGR12])  Some are dynamic (e.g,, [AH06, DA09, PTC07]) — Allow custom, user-defined changes  Some allow terminological changes (e.g., [PFF+13]) — Rename, merge, split — Common, but tough to detect (easily confused with add/delete)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 43 Representation Issues  Deltas are just sets of changes from the change language  Changes usually represented using a change ontology  Ontology represents changes  A specific change is an instance of such an ontology  Deltas associated with sets of such instances  Different proposals [NCLM06, KFKO02, KN03, PT05]  Allows the manipulation and communication of deltas/changes using standard Semantic Web technologies

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 44 Change Monitoring Approaches  Using a version log [PT05]  Logging actions on the dataset  Use it for change detection, as well as proper versioning  Good quality, high-level change monitoring  Based on a dynamic language of changes  Using migration specifications [ZZL+03]  Similar to logs, but with a more formal structure  DBPedia change monitoring [MLA+12]  http://live.dbpedia.org/  Live versions, as opposed to “standard” versions

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 45 Low-Level Change Detection (1/2)  SemVersion [VWS+05]  Developed in Karlsruhe (FZI, AIFB)  Low-level change detection tool for RDF  Provides also versioning functionalities  Allows cross-snapshot queries  For RDF [ILK12]  Low-level change detection based on set difference  Aggregating and compressing deltas  Also dealing with versioning issues  For RDF/S [ZTC11]  Takes into account semantics (RDFS inference)  Four different methods to compute deltas (all based on set difference)  Formal analysis of these methods’ properties and semantics  Extension: effect of blank nodes on change detection [TLZ12]

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 46 Low-Level Change Detection (2/2)  Bubastis (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/fgpt/sw/bubastis/index.html)  Simple diff tool (triple-based comparison)  Basically RDF, but also supports OWL  For DL-Lite [KWZ08]  Formal, semantical approach  For EL [KWW08]  Uses a concept-based description of changes  For propositional knowledge bases [FMV10]  Propositional, but generic; it can be applied to DLs  Formal analysis of the problem  Also dealing with propagation semantics

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 47 High-Level Change Detection (1/2)  For OWL: PromptDiff [NKKM04], OntoView [KFKO02]  Employ heuristics and probabilistic methods  Evaluation using precision/recall metrics against a gold standard  Integrated into tools that also provide versioning functionalities  For RDF/S [PFF+13]  Dealing with both machine-readability and human- understandability  Also dealing with propagation (applying changes)  To be discussed in detail later  COnto-Diff [HGR12]  Rule-based approach  Also dealing with propagation

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 48 Change Propagation Approaches  Usually part of other tools [SMMS02, MMS+03]  Versioning, monitoring tools (push-based propagation)  Detection tools (pull-based propagation)  Evolution and repair tools (pull-based propagation) — Adapt your data to be “compatible” with the new remote version  SparqlPush [PM10]  Push-based propagation of changes on SPARQL “views”  PRISM, PRISM++ [CMZ08, CMDZ10]  High-level language of schema changes for relational data — Also supports changes on the integrity constraints  Identifies and propagates the changes required in the data for abiding to the new schema  Query and update rewriting — For applications that try to access the old schema

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 49 Other Change Management Approaches  Complete approach for XML [SP10]  Representing changes inline with the data using a graph (“evograph”)  Supports different change representation languages (both low- level and high-level)  Timestamps changes  Monitoring: evograph can be used to log the changes  Propagation: changes can be accessed and propagated  Versioning: timestamps in changes can be used to generate snapshots (versions) at different times  Allows cross-snapshot queries  Fairly generic, can be adapted for RDF

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 51 Our Approach on Change Detection  Purpose of this work: change detection [PFF+13]  A posteriori detect the differences (delta or diff) between versions in a concise, intuitive and correct way  Main design choices  Change detection based on a general-purpose high-level language  Human-understandable, but also machine-readable  Clear, formal semantics  Provable formal properties and functionality guarantees  Detection and application (propagation) semantics V1V1 V2V2 V3V3 V4V4 V5V5 C1C1 C2C2 C3C3 C4C4

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 52 Sample Evolution Persistent Event Onset Birth Stuff Actor started_on participants Version 1 (V 1 ) Version 2 (V 2 ) Period Actor Event Onset Existing Stuff Birth started_on participants G_Birth Giorgos participants instantiation subsumption instantiation subsumption G_Birth Giorgos participants Evolution

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 53 Analyzing the Evolution (Using Triples)  Triples in V 1 (partial list) [Event type Class] [Period type Class] [Event subclass Period] [participants type Property] [participants domain Onset] [participants range Actor] [Giorgos type Actor] [Existing type Class] [Stuff subclass Existing] [started_on domain Existing] [Onset subclass Event] [Birth subclass Onset] …  Triples in V 2 (partial list) [Event type Class] [participants type Property] [Event domain participants] [participants range Actor] [Giorgos type Actor] [Persistent type Class] [Stuff subclass Persistent] [started_on domain Persistent] [Onset subclass Event] [Birth subclass Event] …

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 54 Low-Level Delta  Triples in V 2 but not in V 1 (added triples) [Event domain participants] [Persistent type Class] [Stuff subclass Persistent] [started_on domain Persistent] [Birth subclass Event]  Triples in V 1 but not in V 2 (deleted triples) [Period type Class] [Event subclass Period] [participants domain Onset] [Existing type Class] [Stuff subclass Existing] [started_on domain Existing] [Birth subclass Onset] Low-Level Delta Add([Event domain participants]) Add([Persistent type Class]) … Del([Period type Class]) …

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 55 Analyzing the Evolution (Visually) Persistent Event Onset Birth Stuff Actor started_on participants Version 1 (V 1 ) Version 2 (V 2 ) Period Actor Event Onset Existing Stuff Birth started_on participants G_Birth Giorgos participants instantiation subsumption G_Birth Giorgos participants Evolution High-Level Delta Generalize_Domain(participants, Onset, Event) Pull_Up_Class(Birth, Onset, Event) Delete_Class(Period, Ø, {Event}, Ø, Ø, Ø, Ø) Rename_Class(Existing, Persistent)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 56 Comparing the Deltas Persistent Event Onset Birth Stuff Actor started_on participants Version 1 (V 1 ) Version 2 (V 2 ) Period Actor Event Onset Existing Stuff Birth started_on participants G_Birth Giorgos participants instantiation subsumption G_Birth Giorgos participants Evolution Del([participants domain Onset]) Add([participants domain Event]) Generalize_Domain (participants, Onset, Event) Del([Birth subclass Onset]) Add([Birth subclass Event]) Pull_Up_Class (Birth, Onset, Event) Low-level deltaHigh-level delta Del([Period type Class]) Del([Event subclass Period]) Delete_Class (Period,Ø,{Event},Ø,Ø,Ø,Ø)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 57 Associations (Partitioning) Low-Level ChangesAssociated High-Level Changes Del([participants domain Onset]) Generalize_Domain (participants, Onset, Event) Add([participants domain Event]) Del([Birth subclass Onset]) Pull_Up_Class(Birth, Onset, Event) Add([Birth subclass Event]) Del([Period type Class]) Delete_Class (Period, Ø, {Event}, Ø, Ø, Ø, Ø) Del([Event subclass Period]) Del([Existing type Class]) Rename_Class(Existing, Persistent) Del([Stuff subclass Existing]) Del([started_on domain Existing]) Add([Persistent type Class]) Add([Stuff subclass Persistent]) Add([started_on domain Persistent])

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 58 Challenges for High-Level Languages  High-level deltas are superior  More concise (e.g., Rename_Class)  More intuitive (e.g., Pull_Up_Class)  Carry additional information (e.g., Generalize_Domain)  Challenges for high-level languages  Must be deterministic (exactly one high-level delta)  Must be fine-grained enough to capture subtle changes  Must be coarse-grained enough to be concise  Must be intuitive and close to editor’s perception of the changes  Compatible detection and application algorithms  Intuitive results  Efficient

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 59 Proposed Language L  The formal definition of a change consists of:  Changes required in the low-level delta (added/deleted triples)  Conditions that should hold in V 1 and/or V 2  Generalize_Domain(P, X, Y)  Del([P domain X])  Add([P domain Y])  P existing property in both V 1, V 2  X, Y existing classes in both V 1, V 2  X subclass of Y in both V 1, V 2  Generalize_Domain(participants, Onset, Event): detectable  Similarly for the other changes in L (132 high-level ones)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 60 Types and Number of Defined Changes Changes (134) Low-Level (2) High-Level (132) Basic (54) Composite (51) Heuristic (27) Add Del Delete_Subclass Delete_Domain Pull_Up_Class Change_Domain Rename_Class Split_Class

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 61 Results on L: Granularity  Granularity problem: solved by defining levels of changes  Basic Changes: fine-grained, roughly correspond to low-level  Composite Changes: coarse-grained, group several basic changes together  Heuristic Changes: based on heuristics, necessary for Rename, Merge, Split etc; require mappings between URIs  Problems with determinism  One evolution could correspond to different sets of basic/composite changes  Priorities in detection  Heuristic  Composite  Basic

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 62 Results on L: Determinism  Each low-level change is associated with exactly one detectable high-level change  Full partitioning of low-level changes into high-level ones  Each pair of versions (V 1, V 2 ) is associated with:  Exactly one low-level delta  Exactly one high-level delta  Determinism is necessary  More than one would lead to ambiguities  Less than one would make some inputs (V 1, V 2 ) irresolvable

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 63 Results on L: Propagation Persistent Event Onset Birth Stuff Actor started_on participants Version 1 (V 1 ) Version 2 (V 2 ) Period Actor Event Onset Existing Stuff Birth started_on participants G_Birth Giorgos participants G_Birth Giorgos participants Detect C Apply C Apply C -1

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 64 Results on L: Deltas Keep Version History  Can reproduce all versions as long as you keep (any) one version and the deltas  Deltas are more concise than the versions themselves  Storage and communication efficiency V1V1 V2V2 V3V3 V4V4 V5V5 C1C1 C2C2 C3C3 C4C4

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 65 Change Detection: Evaluation  Detection and application algorithms implemented for evaluation  Performance  Complexity: O(max{N 1,N 2,N 2 })  Performance depends on the detected changes (type, number)  Bottleneck: calculating the low-level delta (>80% of total time)  Intuitiveness  Changes in our language are used in practice  Results confirmed by literature/editor notes (CIDOC, GO)  Better than CIDOC’s manually recorded changes (18 changes missed)  Conciseness  Basic ≈ Low-Level  Basic + Composite + Heuristic << Low-Level  Up to 80% reduction, depending on the case

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 66 Summary and Conclusions: RCM  Remote change management is at the heart of LOD  Uncontrolled character of LOD makes it critical  Various related fields  Versioning, change monitoring and detection, change propagation  Unfortunately, not used in practice in LOD  Presented a formal approach for change detection [PFF+13]  Other possible directions (related to LOD)  Best practices should be studied and promoted — Automated versioning and monitoring mechanisms embedded in evolution tools/editors — Understand and use temporal and provenance metadata on versions  Improved change monitoring and detection — A standard change language?

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 67 Talk Structure (C1) A.Introduction to RDF/S, DLs, OWL B.Remote change management 1.Introduction, definition of subfields 2.Literature review 3.An approach for change detection [PFF+13] C.Repair 1.Introduction, definition of subfields 2.Literature review 3.An approach for validity repair [RFC11] D.Data and Knowledge Evolution 1.Introduction, connection with belief change 2.Understanding the process of change 3.Literature review

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 68 Motivation for Repair  Published data is usually problematic  Several different types of problems in LOD [HHP+10]  Pedantic web initiative (http://pedantic-web.org/) — Advice for data owners on how to prevent common problems in their data

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 69 Causes of Data Problems  Several reasons for data problems  Erroneous data (faulty sensors, human mistakes etc)  Different symbolisms and terminology  Modeling errors (e.g., all birds fly)  Requirements (constraints) on the data may change — E.g., when applications’ needs change  Reuse data by different providers (no quality guarantees)  Quality jeopardized by re-use and open evolution  Integration/merging of datasets

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 70 Generic Approaches  Four ways to deal with problems in data [HHH+05]  Prevent it (careful evolution, merging etc) — Can only prevent problems caused by changes in the local dataset  Correct it (repair) — Actively address the problem (after it appears)  Ignore it (consistent query answering, non-monotonic reasoning) — CQA: popular in database community; prevents user from noticing the problem by rewriting queries (common denominator approach) — NMR: popular in AI community; avoid trivialization of reasoning (paraconsistent reasoning, defeasible reasoning, default reasoning, …)  Use versions (versioning) — Make sure you refer to the correct (compatible) version — Only when the problem is due to a remote change

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 71 Subfields of Repair  Cleaning  Mainly related to literal quality  Terminology, symbols, metric units etc  Debugging  Consistency (at least one model)  Coherency (no unsatisfiable classes)  Relevant for DL/OWL only  Validity repair  Satisfaction of custom integrity constraints (e.g., business rules)  Expressed in OWL, DL, Datalog or predicate logic  Quality enhancement  Assessing and improving the quality of data  Different dimensions (timeliness, completeness, reputation, …)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 72 Cleaning  Literals in LOD are often messy, and have to be “cleaned up”  Different formats for names, dates etc — &gf name “Giorgos Flouris”&gf name “Flouris, Giorgos” — &gf birth_date 03/05/76&gf birth_date 05/03/76 — &gf birthplace “Hellas”&gf birthplace “Greece”  Different symbols — Paris land_area 105,4Paris land_area 105.4 — Paris population 2.234.105Paris population 2,234,105  Different metric units — Paris land_area 105,4Paris land_area 40,7 — &x price 30&x price 39  Inconsistent values — &x price 0&x price “free”  Data is not in the desired form (data transformation) — LIP6 addr “4, P. Jussieu”LIP6 street “P. Jussieu”LIP6 streetno 4

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 73 Debugging  Coherency  No unsatisfiable classes  Indicates good modeling  Consistency  At least one model  Avoids reasoning triviality  Relevant for DL/OWL only Pengo Bird canFly  canFly Penguin Horse  hasHorns hasHorns Unicorn

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 74 Validity Repair  Validity repair  Satisfaction of custom integrity constraints (e.g., business rules)  Encode context- or application-specific requirements — PROV-DM: http://www.w3.org/TR/2013/REC-prov-constraints-20130430/  Applications may be useless over invalid data  Expressed in OWL, DL, Datalog, Datalog ±, predicate logic, …  Different expressive power  Different semantics (OWA/CWA, UNA) [TSBM10, MHS09]  Various types of constraints  Functional, inverse functional, transitivity, cardinality constraints  Disjointness constraints  Primary key, foreign key, inclusion constraints  Tuple-generating dependencies (tgd), equality-generating dependencies (egd)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 75 Quality Enhancement  Quality is defined as “fitness for use” [Jur74]  Multi-faceted (timeliness, completeness, reputation, …)  Task-dependent  Subjective  Assessing quality  Via assessment functions (e.g., [BC09]) or SPARQL queries (e.g., [FH10])  Some kind of combined scoring over the relevant dimensions  Improving (enhancing) quality  Usually manual  Tries to improve the assessment score

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 77 Cleaning Tool: OpenRefine  Open source  Originally developed by google (GoogleRefine)  http://openrefine.org/  Applies on various representations of the input data  CSV/TSV, Excel, JSON, XML, RDF as XML, etc  RDF extension  Functionalities (related to this talk)  Data exploration and cleaning — Both automated and manual (interface assists in manual cleaning)  Data transformation (format conversion) — Uses GREL (Google Refine Expression Language) and regular expressions

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 78 Cleaning Tool: ODCleanStore  Web application, written in Java  Developed by Charles University (Prague)  http://www.ksi.mff.cuni.cz/~knap/odcs/sections/odcs.html  Functionalities (related to this talk)  Cleaning — Via “transformers” (policies for cleaning) — Expressed using SPARQL or regular expressions  Quality assessment — Transformer assigns a score to data  Validity repair — Supports conflict resolution for functional properties — Decides what to drop based on the quality of the data items involved — Supports aggregation functionalities based on “aggregation policies”

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 79 Other Cleaning Approaches  Involve users in the loop [KHS12]  Manual requests for improvements (cleaning, quality, …)  Patch Request Ontology (PRO)  Use a GWAP (Game With A Purpose) for identifying data problems

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 80 Debugging: Literature Overview  Identify and resolve inconsistency/incoherency  Two phases  Diagnosis: identify inconsistency/incoherency  Repair: remove inconsistency/incoherency  Literature mostly dealing with diagnosis  Repair requires additional user input  Diagnosis is more than reasoning  Pinpoint the causes of inconsistency/incoherency  Repair  User input required (manual or semi-automatic approaches)  Automatic approaches also require user input or domain knowledge (ad-hoc solutions)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 81 Debugging Approaches  Diagnosis using tableau-based algorithms for various DLs  Identify minimal sets of responsible axioms — [SC03, MLBP06, PT06, WHR+05]  Identify responsible parts of axioms (more fine-grained) — [KPS+06, LPSV06]  Repair  Manual: editors and related tools — Onion [MWK00], PROMPT [NM00], Chimaera [MFRW00]  Semi-automatic — Interactive approach via suggestions: ORE tool [LB10]  Automatic: — Using external information, e.g., for stratified datasets [QP07, MLB05]

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 82 Validity Repair: Literature Overview  Identify and resolve invalidity (custom constraints)  Two phases  Diagnosis: identify invalidity  Repair: remove invalidity  Literature mostly dealing with diagnosis  Repair requires additional user input  Diagnosis is more than validation  Pinpoint the causes of invalidity  Repair  User input required (manual or semi-automatic approaches)  Automatic approaches also require user input or domain knowledge (ad-hoc solutions)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 83 Validity Repair Approaches  Not much work in repairing custom constraints in LOD  A large body of related work for the relational setting — For various constraint types and repair methodologies  Existing tools  Stardog (http://www.stardog.com/docs/) — Commercial RDF database that supports validation of custom constraints  Rondo (relational/XML) [Mel04] — Repair based on a fixed “importance” of data items  Declarative repairing based on preferences [RFC11] — To be discussed in detail later  Repairing functional properties ([FRPV+12], Sieve [MMB12])

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 84 Data Quality Frameworks (1/4)  Many different quality assessment methodologies and frameworks  Several different quality dimensions  Different works consider different dimensions  Different proposals for their classification and organization  There is no single, generally accepted data quality framework  Cannot be one  Different applications have different needs

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 85 Data Quality Frameworks (2/4)  Quality dimensions, quality indicators, scoring functions and assessment metrics [BC09]  Different quality dimensions — Timeliness, completeness, reputation, …  Each dimension associated with different indicators — Timeliness: last modification date, creation date, …  Each indicator associated with different scoring functions — E.g., days since last update  Scoring functions from relevant indicators are combined using assessment metrics — E.g., Reputation_value*0,6 + days_since_update*0,4

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 86 Data Quality Frameworks (3/4) [RH09]

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 87 Data Quality Frameworks (4/4) [ADA98]

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 89 Our Approach on Validity Repair  Declarative approach for validity repair [RFC11]  Main design choices  Both diagnosis and repair  Applicable for RDF/S  Adopted relational semantics (CWA) for the constraints  Generality on the supported constraints (DEDs)  Minimal user interaction (all info provided at input)  Automatic diagnosis  Automatic repair using preferences (provided by the user at input)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 90 RDF/S Representation Model  Express RDF/S over an adequate relational schema  Hybrid method — C_IsA(A,B): A is a subclass of B — C_Inst(x,A): x is an instance of A — Domain(P,A): the domain of P is A — …  Alternatives  Schema-specific — One table/predicate for each class/property (A(x), B(x), P(x,y), …) — Not amenable to changes (e.g., delete class)  Schema-agnostic (triple-store) — One table with three columns (spo) — Harder to define constraints, less intuitive

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 91 Allowed Constraints  Considered a very general class of constraints  Disjunctive Embedded Dependencies (DEDs) [Deu09]  Very general class  Functional, inverse functional, transitivity, cardinality constraints  Disjointness constraints  Primary key, foreign key, inclusion constraints  Tuple-generating dependencies (tgd), equality-generating dependencies (egd)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 92 Constraints  Express validity constraints over the aforementioned schema:  Class subsumption must be acyclic —  x,y C_IsA(x,y)  C_IsA(y,x)  ⊥  Correct classification in property instances —  x,y,p,a P_Inst(x,y,p)  Domain(p,a)  C_Inst(x,a) —  x,y,p,a P_Inst(x,y,p)  Range(p,a)  C_Inst(y,a)  Closed World Assumption (CWA)  Failure to prove something, is a proof for its negation  Syntactical manipulations on constraints allow  Diagnosis — Finding violated constraints  Repair — Identifying repairing options per violation

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 93 Dataset D 0 Class(Sensor), Class(SpatialThing), Class(Observation) Prop(geo:location) Domain(geo:location,Sensor) Range(geo:location,SpatialThing) Inst(Item1), Inst(ST1) P_Inst(Item1,ST1,geo:location) C_Inst(Item1,Observation), C_Inst(ST1,SpatialThing) Repairing Example Correct classification in property instances  x,y,p,a P_Inst(x,y,p)  Domain(p,a)  C_Inst(x,a) Sensor SpatialThing Observation Item1ST1 geo:location Schema Data Item1 geo:location ST1 Sensor is the domain of geo:location Item1 is not a Sensor P_Inst(Item1,ST1,geo:location)  D 0 Remove P_Inst(Item1,ST1,geo:location) Add C_Inst(Item1,Sensor) Remove Domain(geo:location,Sensor) C_Inst(Item1,Sensor)  D 0 Domain(geo:location,Sensor)  D 0 geo:location

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 94 Preferences for Repair  Which repairing option is best?  Data owner determines that via preferences  Preferences  Specified beforehand  High-level “specifications” for the ideal repair  Serve as “instructions” to determine the preferred (optimal) solution

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 95 Preferences (On Datasets) D0D0 D2D2 D3D3 Score: 3 Score: 4 Score: 6 D1D1

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 96 Preferences (On Deltas) D0D0 D2D2 D3D3 Score: 2 Score: 1 Score: 5 D1D1 -P_Inst (Item1,ST1, geo:location) +C_Inst (Item1,Sensor) -Dom (geo:location, Sensor)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 97 More Details on Preferences  Preferences on datasets are result-oriented  Consider the quality of the repair result  Ignore the impact of repair  Popular options: prefer newest/trustable information, prefer a specific schema structure  Preferences on deltas are impact-oriented  Consider the impact of repair  Ignore the quality of the repair result  Popular options: minimize schema changes, minimize addition/deletion of information, minimize delta size  Properties of preferences  Quality metrics can be used for stating preferences  Metadata on the data can be used (e.g., provenance)  Can be qualitative or quantitative

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 98 Generalizing the Approach  For one violated constraint 1. Diagnose invalidity 2. Determine minimal ways to resolve it 3. Determine and return preferred solution based on the preference  For many violated constraints  Problem becomes more complicated  More than one resolution steps are required  Issues: 1. Resolution order 2. When and how to filter non-optimal solutions? 3. Constraint (and resolution) interdependencies

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 99 Constraint Interdependencies  A given resolution may:  Cause other violations (bad)  Resolve other violations (good)  Optimal resolution unknown ‘a priori’  Cannot predict a resolution’s ramifications  Exhaustive, recursive search required (resolution tree)  Two ways to create the resolution tree  Globally-optimal (GO) / locally-optimal (LO)  When and how to filter non-optimal solutions?

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 100 Resolution Tree Creation (GO) – Find all minimal resolutions for all the violated constraints, then find the optimal ones – Globally-optimal (GO)  Find all minimal resolutions for one violation  Explore them all  Repeat recursively until valid  Return the optimal leaves Optimal repairs (returned)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 101 Resolution Tree Creation (LO) – Find the minimal and optimal resolutions for one violated constraint, then repeat for the next – Locally-optimal (LO)  Find all minimal resolutions for one violation  Explore the optimal one(s)  Repeat recursively until valid  Return all remaining leaves Optimal repair (returned)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 102 Comparison (GO versus LO)  Characteristics of GO  Exhaustive  Less efficient: large resolution trees  Always returns optimal repairs  Insensitive to constraint syntax  Deterministic (result does not depend on resolution order)  Characteristics of LO  Greedy  More efficient: small resolution trees  May return sub-optimal repairs  Sensitive to constraint syntax  Non-deterministic (result may depend on resolution order)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 103 Repair: Generality Results  The approach is very general  Thanks to the generality/flexibility of preferences  Repair approaches can be captured using adequately designed preferences  Using either the LO or the GO strategy  All the current approaches that we checked  Practically all future ones — This has been proved, under some general conditions regarding the behavior of the repair approach  Our model can be viewed as a general approach engulfing other repair approaches

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 104 Repair: Algorithms and Complexity  Implemented both algorithms  Detailed complexity analysis for GO/LO and various different types of constraints and preferences  Inherently difficult problem  Exponential complexity (in general)  Main exception: LO is polynomial (in special cases)  Theoretical complexity is misleading as to the actual performance of the algorithms

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 105 Performance in Practice  Performance in practice  Linear with respect to dataset size  Linear with respect to tree size — Types of violated constraints (tree width) — Number of violations (tree height) – causes the exponential blowup — Constraint interdependencies (tree height) — Preference (for LO): affects pruning (tree width)  Further performance improvement  Use optimizations  Use LO with restrictive preference  Currently considering a redesign for further improvement

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 106 Summary and Conclusions: Repair  Data usually problematic  Different types of problems  Repair is done using different approaches depending on the type of the problem  Cleaning, debugging, repairing, quality assessment and enrichment  Presented a formal approach for validity repair [RFC11]  Other possible directions (related to LOD)  Most approaches detect problems, but don’t resolve them  Efficiency problems (for repairing algorithms)  Exploit external knowledge on the cause of the problem (e.g., propagation of invalidity by a linked dataset)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 107 Talk Structure (D1) A.Introduction to RDF/S, DLs, OWL B.Remote change management 1.Introduction, definition of subfields 2.Literature review 3.An approach for change detection [PFF+13] C.Repair 1.Introduction, definition of subfields 2.Literature review 3.An approach for validity repair [RFC11] D.Data and Knowledge Evolution 1.Introduction, connection with belief change 2.Understanding the process of change 3.Literature review

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 108 Motivation for Evolution  Reasons for evolution  New observations or experiments  Change in the viewpoint or usage of the dataset  Newly gained access to information (previously classified, unknown or otherwise unavailable)  Incomplete or inaccurate conceptualization  Changes in the world itself  Repairing  Change propagation (cascading evolution in LOD)  Not an LOD-specific problem  But critical for LOD as well

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 109 Definition of Evolution  The process of modifying a dataset in response to a change in the domain or its conceptualization  Dealing with both data and schema changes New Data/Knowledge Evolution Algorithm Original Dataset Modified Dataset

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 110 Evolution: Setting the Scope  Evolution is an overloaded term  Phases of evolution  Six phases in [SMMS02], five phases in [PT05]  Detecting the need for evolution, change propagation, logging changes, versioning etc  Scope: apply the change and compute the new dataset  Out of scope: deciding on the change, evaluating the result, managing versions, logging changes etc

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 111 Explaining Evolution (1/4) King Chess Piece Plastic Wooden White Black Red Data Level Schema Level Chess Dataset Representation Language: RDF Change: Add([King rdf:type Red])

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 112 Explaining Evolution (2/4) King Chess Piece Plastic Wooden White Black Red Data Level Schema Level Chess Dataset Representation Language: RDF Change: Del([King rdf:type Black]) Is the King Wooden?

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 113 Explaining Evolution (3/4) King Chess Piece Plastic Wooden White Black Red Data Level Schema Level Chess Dataset Representation Language: RDF Change: Del([King rdf:type Wooden]) Some domain knowledge required (extra-logical considerations)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 114 Explaining Evolution (4/4) King Chess Piece Plastic Wooden White Black Red Data Level Schema Level Chess Dataset Representation Language: OWL Wooden and Plastic are disjoint [Wooden owl:disjointClass Plastic] Change: Add([King rdf:type Plastic]) Is the King Black? Is the King Wooden? disjoint

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 115 Side-effects in Evolution  Changes should not undermine the “quality” of the dataset  Side-effects: additional changes that need to be applied along with the original change to maintain knowledge integrity and quality  Consistency, coherency, custom constraints, quality metrics, …  Main challenge in determining the evolution result  Determining side-effects

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 116 Determining Side-effects  Challenges in determining side-effects  Evolution result not always obvious (even for humans) — Understand the process of change — Various philosophical considerations involved  Selection involved (extra-logical considerations) — Domain expertise — Preferences (trust, provenance, axiom “strength” or “entrenchment”)  Early evolution approaches rather naïve in this respect  Ignored such issues or addressed them in an ad-hoc manner

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 117 Belief Change  Belief change (often referred to as belief revision)  The process of modifying a knowledge base in the face of new, possibly contradictory knowledge  Mature, well-established field  Focuses for logical formalisms (propositional, first-order logic)  Recent survey on belief change [FH11]  Aims to understand the process of change  The philosophical/logical counterpart of dataset evolution  Can provide solutions and inspiration

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 118 Cross-Fertilization with Belief Change  Cross-fertilization beneficial [Flo06, FPA05, FPA06]  Benefits  Similar problems  Differences on the underlying intuitions are minimal  Belief change field more mature  Frame problems and provide inspiration towards a solution  Protect from pitfalls  Avoid “reinventing the wheel”  Problems  Representation languages and formalisms are different  Assumptions regarding the underlying representation language — These assumptions do not hold for LOD representation languages  Can reuse the ideas, not the results themselves

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 120 Challenges and Considerations  List of challenges and problems related to evolution  As well as some answers from the belief change field  Challenges and the complexity of formalisms  Some of the problems do not appear in simpler formalisms (RDF)  Some of the problems are only relevant in the presence of schema — Data changes are simpler (on a fixed schema)  Part of the discussion only relevant for DL, OWL

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 121 Importance of Implicit Data (Example) King Chess Piece Plastic Wooden White Black Red Data Level Schema Level Chess Dataset Representation Language: RDF Change: Del([King rdf:type Black]) Is the King Wooden?

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 122 Importance of Implicit Data  Explicit and implicit data equally important  The coherence viewpoint  King is Wooden  The closure of the dataset is considered during changes — Belief set semantics  Implicit data persistent — Explicit support not necessary for implicit data  No discrimination — No need to distinguish explicit data from implicit — Redundant data can be deleted  Explicit data more important than implicit  The foundational viewpoint  King is not Wooden  Only explicit knowledge is considered during changes — Belief base semantics  Implicit data volatile — Retained only as long as there is explicit support  Discrimination — Explicit data should be explicitly marked as such — Redundant data should persist

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 123 Redundant Data King Chess Piece Plastic Wooden White Black Red Data Level Schema Level Chess Dataset Representation Language: RDF Change: Add([King rdf:type Black])

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 124 The King Is Black King Chess Piece Plastic Wooden White Black Red Data Level Schema Level Chess Dataset Representation Language: RDF Observation: the King is Black Change: Add([King rdf:type Black]) Is the King Wooden?

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 125 Paint It Black King Chess Piece Plastic Wooden White Black Red Data Level Schema Level Chess Dataset Representation Language: RDF Action: King is painted Black Change: Add([King rdf:type Black]) Is the King Wooden?

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 126 Static and Dynamic Worlds  Same dataset, same change, but different expected result  Different semantics between the two cases [KM91]  Different operations  Static world change semantics  The world does not change, but our perception of it changes  Modeling or conceptualization problems, new observation etc  Dynamic world change semantics  The world changes, and we need to keep ourselves up-to-date  No problems with the original conceptualization

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 127 Types of Operations  Static world  Revision (add)  Contraction (delete)  Dynamic world  Update (add)  Erasure (delete)  Plus some more (forget, expansion, …)  Less well-studied  Ignored for this talk  Irrelevant for LOD or trivial StaticDynamic AdditionRevisionUpdate DeletionContractionErasure

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 128 Example: Revision and Contraction King Chess Piece Plastic Wooden White Black Red Data Level Schema Level Chess Dataset Representation Language: OWL Change #1 I believe that the King is not Black Add([King rdf:type NotBlack], [NotBlack owl:complementOf Black]) Change #2 I do not believe that the King is Black Del([King rdf:type Black]) NotBlack

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 129 Expressing the Change  Different paradigms for expressing the change  Modification-based — “Add([King rdf:type NotBlack], [NotBlack owl:complementOf Black])” — The exact modifications that should be applied to accommodate the new knowledge — Must know the conceptualization — Closer to the ontology expert  Fact-based — “I believe that the King is not Black” — A new fact that should be accommodated in the dataset — Extra layer of abstraction (extra step required to determine modifications) — Closer to the domain expert  Handling multiple changes  Iterated belief change  Package versus choice semantics (contraction and erasure)  Merging

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 130 Evolution Principles (Partial List)  Principle of Success (Primacy of New Information)  New information is unconditionally accepted  Non-prioritized belief change  Principle of Validity (Consistency Maintenance)  Belief change: usually logical consistency  LOD evolution: consistency, coherency, custom constraints, …  Principle of Minimal Change  Determine the side-effects that have minimal impact — But satisfying the other principles  Corresponds to the selection process  Minimality depends on the task, context, user, application, …  Different postulates and intuitions (recovery, relevance etc)  Different metrics (model-based, formula-based, cardinality etc)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 131 Understanding the Principles King Chess Piece Plastic Wooden White Black Red Data Level Schema Level Chess Dataset Representation Language: OWL Wooden and Plastic are disjoint [Wooden owl:disjointClass Plastic] Change: Add([King rdf:type Plastic]) Invalidity (basically, inconsistency) The King is both Wooden and Plastic Three options (Minimal Change) disjoint

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 132 Non-obvious Side-effects King Chess Piece Plastic Wooden White Black Red Data Level Schema Level Chess Dataset Representation Language: ALC DL I don’t believe that all White items are Chess_Pieces Replace subsumptions with: White ⊓ Chess_Piece ⊑ Plastic Plastic ⊑ White ⊔ Chess_Piece Plastic Chess_Piece White

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 134 Classes of Belief Change Approaches (1/2)  Postulates (one set for each operation)  Formalize the principles, using logical conditions  Essentially define the properties of a rational change operator — Some principles not considered or given varying semantics — Principle of Minimal Change is the most controversial  Do not uniquely define an operator — A class of operators (expected rational results) — Extra-logical considerations would determine the actual result — Operator-specific (preferences, axiom strength, hard-coded semantics, …)  Belief change context [AGM85, KM91, Han91]  Evolution context [FKAC13, WWT10, QLB06a, QLB06b]

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 135 Classes of Belief Change Approaches (2/2)  Construction methods  Intuitive constructions for a family of operators of a certain type  Representation theorems — Proof that the constructed family corresponds exactly to the class of operators that satisfy a certain set of postulates  Can be used as “templates” to construct rational change operators  Parameterized selection process — Preferences, axiom strength, etc  Popular in belief change, not so much in evolution  Explicit algorithms  Implement a specific operator that satisfies some of the postulates  Hard-coded or parameterized selection process  Popular in evolution context, not so much in belief change

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 136 Discussion on the Operator Types (1/2)  Connections between the various operators  Static: revision/contraction interdefinable [AGM85]  Dynamic: update/erasure interdefinable [KM91]  Model-theoretic characterization of the connection between static/dynamic worlds (revision-update, contraction-erasure) [KM91]  Postulates critical for establishing those results  Revision and update more useful in practice  Contraction/erasure only used to express agnosticism  Contraction and erasure more interesting from a theoretical perspective  More fundamental operations

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 137 Discussion on the Operator Types (2/2)  Revise with φ (in belief change)  Contract ¬φ — This resolves, a priori, any potential inconsistency problems  Add φ (without side-effects)  Revise with φ (in LOD)  Contract data that could potentially cause problems — Inconsistency, incoherency, …  Add φ (without side-effects)  Contraction is the basis for revision  Simpler operation  Basically, if you know how to contract, you know how to revise  Most of the focus in belief change and also in LOD evolution  Same for update/erasure

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 138 Evolution via Editors  Features  Intuitive interfaces  Easy to add/delete triples (but not facts)  Some help for determining the side-effects of a change — Embedded reasoners and/or debugging/repair tools to propose side-effects  Additional facilities — Versioning, monitoring, undo/redo, …  Main problems  User should be both ontology and domain expert  Not applicable in some cases — Examples: automated agents, time-critical applications, massive streaming input  No formal properties  Examples  Protégé (http://protege.stanford.edu/)  NeOn toolkit (http://neon-toolkit.org/wiki/Main_Page)  OntoStudio (http://www.semafora-systems.com/en/products/ontostudio/)  KAON2 (http://kaon2.semanticweb.org/)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 139 Declarative Approaches  SPARQL Update (http://www.w3.org/TR/sparql11-update/)  For RDF  Fixed semantics, no side-effects  Data and schema operations (also bulk changes)  RUL [MSCK05]  For RDF/S, taking into account RDFS semantics  Fixed semantics, predefined set of side-effects per operation  Only for data operations (also bulk changes)  EvoPat [RHTA10]  Declaratively associate changes with side-effects (using SPARQL)  SPARQL queries determine whether side-effects should be applied  SPARQL update statements represent such side-effects  Tempus fugit [LRV09]  Event-driven, declarative specification of the operators’ semantics

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 140 Fixed-Operations Approach  Standard approach in the early days (e.g., [SMMS02])  Set of supported operations (Add_Class, Add_Domain, …)  Identify potential problems and side-effects per operation — Decision is hard-coded or user-defined (from a set of options) — Example: when deleting a subsumption, how about implicit subsumptions?  Automatic or semi-automatic  Problems  No consensus on the language of changes  No limit on the number of operations — What about unknown/unsupported operators?  No exhaustive formal analysis of potential side-effects  No formal properties or other guarantees  Incomplete understanding of the change process

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 141 Approaches Inspired by Belief Change (1/2)  Revision in ALU DL [LM04]  Using preferences among axioms  Inspired by “epistemic entrenchment”  Revision in generic DLs [QD09]  Three model-based revision operators for DLs  Emphasis on the Principle of Irrelevance of Syntax — Semantical, rather than syntactical, considerations should drive the result  Revision in DL-Lite [GQW12]  Using a graph-based algorithm  For data changes only (Abox)  Update and erasure in RDF/S [GHV06, GHV11]  Taking into account RDFS inference  Update is trivial, erasure is challenging (due to RDFS inference)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 142 Approaches Inspired by Belief Change (2/2)  Using the maxi-adjustment algorithm [MLB05, QLB06a, QLB06b]  Used to repair inconsistencies in propositional knowledge bases  Requires a stratification in the knowledge  Adapted for disjunctive DLs  Using kernel operators [Han94]  Kernels: minimal sets of formulas leading to inconsistency — Minimal Inconsistency Preserving Sub-Tboxes (MIPS) [SC03]  OWL [HWK06]  DLs [QHHP08]  Generic formalisms with no negation (such as RDF) [RW07]

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 143 Postulation Approaches in Evolution (1/3)  AGM: dominating paradigm in belief change [AGM85]  The single most influential work in the field of belief change  Contributions  AGM postulates: two sets of 6 basic and 2 supplementary postulates — One set for each operator (revision and contraction)  Plus various related results — Partial meet contraction — Representation theorems — Connections between operators  Only for classical logics (satisfying certain assumptions)  Propositional, first-order, modal logics, …  Not for LOD formalisms (RDF/S, DLs, OWL)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 144 Postulation Approaches in Evolution (2/3)  AGM contraction postulates adapted for monotonic logics [Flo06, FPA05, FPA06]  Includes all LOD formalisms  But: no satisfying contraction operator exists for many such logics  Cannot find a proper result in certain cases  Necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of such an operator [FPA06, Flo06]  Negative results for RDF/S, OWL, most DLs [FPA05, RWFA13]  Problem stems from the postulate of recovery [AGM85]  Captures the Principle of Minimal Change  Controversial [Han91]

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 145 Postulation Approaches in Evolution (3/3)  Replacing recovery with optimal recovery [FPA06, FHP+06]  Equivalent to recovery for classical logics  But weaker in general  Not particularly successful either  Replacing recovery with relevance [Han91]  An intuitive, well-established alternative to recovery  Equivalent with recovery for classical logics  Applicable under quite general conditions [RWFA13] — Applicable for all compact logics — Includes RDF/S, practically all DLs and OWL flavors and profiles  Adequate for expressing the principles of contraction in LOD languages  Connections with recovery established for non-classical logics

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 146 Principle of Adequacy of Representation  Principle of Adequacy of Representation  The evolution result should be expressible in the same formalism as the original dataset  Obvious and trivial  Not always compatible with our requirements for the evolution result  Postulates (e.g., AGM postulates)  Specific incarnations of the Principle of Minimal Change  Specific computational methods or classes of operators  Two stages for the computation [CGKZ12]  Find the “optimal” evolution result according to the requirements  Express it in the target language (not always possible) — Inexpressibility results

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 147 Inexpressibility for Classes of Operators  Generic contraction methods [CGKZ12]  Syntactic: remove a minimal set of explicit axioms  Formula-based: remove a minimal set of axioms from the closure — Three different semantics for minimality  Model-based: modify the model in a minimal manner — Eight different methods to find the “minimal” distance between models  Existing contraction algorithms can be categorized along these generic classes of methods  Different contraction methods not compatible in general (for DLs)  Model-based and formula-based are compatible in classical logics  Inexpressibility results for DL-Lite, EL (i.e., OWL2 QL, OWL2 EL) [CGKZ12]  Proposal: a “hybrid” operator combining ideas from syntactic and formula-based approaches [CGKZ12]

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 148 More Inexpressibility Results  DL-Lite evolution [CKNZ10]  Focusing on model-based and formula-based approaches for contraction  Inexpressibility results  Propose a formula-based approach  DL revision [LLMW06]  Model-based approach, limited to Abox only (data level)  Inexpressibility results  Propose a new DL that supports model-based evolution  Approximations  DL-Lite F [GLPR07, GLPR09] — Update and erasure approximation algorithms for data-level changes only — Alternative: extend DL-Lite F to make sure that result is expressible  DL-Lite [WWT10] — Provide postulates and approximation algorithms for revision

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 149 Other Approaches  Evolution using ideas from argumentation frameworks [MRF08]  ALC DL  Inconsistency in a dataset is an “attack” between arguments  Acceptability semantics used to resolve such attacks and eliminate inconsistencies  Useful for both debugging and evolution  Evolution can be reduced to debugging/repair [HHH+05]  Apply the change  Then repair the result to resolve problems (Principle of Validity) — Making sure the change is not “undone” during repair (Principle of Success)

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 150 Evolution Under Custom Constraints  Evolution in the presence of custom validity constraints [KFAC07, FKAC13]  Methodology  Apply the change (Principle of Success)  Guarantee satisfaction of constraints (Principle of Validity)  Use a preference to determine minimality (Principle of Minimal Change)  Features  Generic method, applied for RDF/S evolution  A formal expression of the principles for the proposed setting  Exhaustive method to determine all possible side-effects and identify the “best” (according to the preference)  Constrain allowed preferences for rationality and performance  Based on similar ideas as the repairing approach of [RFC11]

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 151 Summary and Conclusions: Evolution  The problem of evolution is very challenging  Several issues need to be considered — Not obvious to a newcomer — Often ignored  Evolution approaches  Direct: manual, based on fixed operators, declarative  Indirect: postulation attempts  Adapted: adapting belief change algorithms or methods  Other possible directions (related to LOD)  Adapt for the “linked” character of LOD — Evolution during propagation or after change detection — Extra knowledge that can be exploited for adapting preferences, fine-tuning of automated algorithms etc

Giorgos FlourisOpen Data Tutorials, May 2013 152 Thank You!

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