1. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Market Failure Recall Adam Smith’s “invisible hand” leads self-interested buyers & sellers in a market to maximize the total benefit for society But market failures can still happen!

2. Copyright © 2004 South-Western EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY An externality refers to the uncompensated impact of one person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander. Externalities cause markets to be inefficient, and thus fail to maximize total surplus.

3. Copyright © 2004 South-Western EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY An externality arises...... when a person engages in an activity that influences the well-being of a bystander and yet neither pays nor receives any compensation for that effect. When the impact on the bystander is adverse, the externality is called a negative externality. When the impact on the bystander is beneficial, the externality is called a positive externality.

4. Copyright © 2004 South-Western EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY Negative Externalities Automobile exhaust Factory pollution Cigarette smoking Barking dogs (loud pets) Airplanes (landing/take-off)

5. Copyright © 2004 South-Western EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY Positive Externalities Immunizations Landscaping/Home Maintenance Research & Development Education

6. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Equilibrium = Balance MB = MC = P* Qs = Qd Allocative efficiency

7. Copyright © 2004 South-Western EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY Negative externalities lead markets to produce a larger quantity than is socially desirable. Positive externalities lead markets to produce a smaller quantity than is socially desirable.

8. Copyright © 2004 South-Western The Market for Aluminum The quantity produced & consumed at the market equilibrium is efficient in the sense that it maximizes the benefits to market participants (buyers & sellers). If the aluminum factories emit pollution then the cost to society of producing aluminum is larger than the cost to aluminum producers. For each unit of aluminum produced, the social cost includes the private costs of the producers plus the damage to those bystanders adversely affected by the pollution.

9. Figure 2 Pollution and the Social Optimum Copyright © 2004 South-Western Equilibrium Quantity of Aluminum 0 Price of Aluminum Demand (private value) Supply (private cost) Social cost Q OPTIMUM Optimum Cost of pollution Q MARKET

10. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Negative Externalities social cost > private cost The intersection of the demand curve and the social-cost curve determines the optimal output level. The private market outcome over-produces aluminum at the market equilibrium quantity

11. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Education When an externality benefits the bystanders, a positive externality exists…..the social value of the good exceeds the private value. Education can be considered a positive externality Educated children are more likely to become good citizens (voters, productive workers, less crime). Benefits spill over to general public beyond the benefit to individual students.

12. Figure 3 Education and the Social Optimum Copyright © 2004 South-Western Quantity of Education 0 Price of Education Demand (private value) Social value Supply (private cost) Q MARKET Q OPTIMUM

13. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Positive Externalities social benefit > private benefit The intersection of the supply curve and the social- value curve determines the optimal output level. The private market outcome under-consumes education at the market equilibrium quantity

14. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Solving Externalities Internalizing an externality involves altering incentives so that people take account of the external effects of their actions. The government can internalize an externality by imposing a tax/subsidy to reduce/increase the equilibrium quantity to the socially desirable level. Patents & Copyrights

15. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Government action is not always needed to solve the problem of externalities. The Coase Theorem proposes that if property rights are clearly defined and protected private parties can negotiate without cost, then they can solve the problem of externalities on their own. Transaction costs are the costs that parties incur in the process of agreeing to and following through on a negotiated settlement.

16. Copyright © 2004 South-Western The Coase Theorem $2,000$100 $300$600 citrus farmer fisherman profits per week high output low output

17. Copyright © 2004 South-Western The Coase Theorem $2,000$4,000 $300$9,000 citrus farmer fisherman profits per week high output low output

18. Copyright © 2004 South-Western PUBLIC POLICY TOWARD EXTERNALITIES When externalities are significant and private solutions are not found, government may attempt to solve the problem through... command-and-control policies. market based policies (taxes, pollution permits) recall airport example