1. Genetics Notes #3 Beyond Mendel’s Laws Human Genetics

2. Objectives: Understand situations that do not follow Mendel’s laws.
Incomplete dominance
Co-dominance
Pleiotropy
Epistasis
Polygenic Inheritance
Sex-Linked Traits

3. Extending Mendelian genetics
Mendel worked with a simple system
peas are genetically simple
most traits are controlled by a single gene
each gene has only 2 alleles, 1 of which is completely dominant to the other
The relationship between genotype & phenotype is rarely that simple

4. Incomplete dominance
Heterozygote shows an intermediate, blended phenotype
example:
RR = red flowers
rr = white flowers
Rr = pink flowers
make 50% less color
RR
WW
RW RR RW WW

5. It’s like flipping 2 pennies!
Incomplete dominance X P
true-breeding
red flowers
true-breeding
white flowers
100%
100% pink flowers F1
generation
(hybrids)
It’s like flipping 2 pennies!
self-pollinate
25%
white F2
generation
25%
red
1:2:1
50%
pink

6. Co-dominance 2 alleles affect the phenotype equally & separately
not blended phenotype
human ABO blood groups
3 alleles
IA, IB, i
IA & IB alleles are co-dominant
glycoprotein antigens on RBC
IAIB = both antigens are produced
i allele recessive to both

7. Genetics of Blood type A IA IA or IA i B IB IB or IB i AB IA IB O i i
pheno-type
genotype
antigen on RBC
antibodies in blood
donation status A
IA IA or IA i
type A antigens on surface of RBC
anti-B antibodies __ B
IB IB or IB i
type B antigens on surface of RBC
anti-A antibodies AB
IA IB
both type A & type B antigens on surface of RBC
no antibodies
universal recipient O
i i
no antigens on surface of RBC
anti-A & anti-B antibodies
universal donor

8. Pleiotropy Most genes are pleiotropic
one gene affects more than one phenotypic character
1 gene affects more than 1 trait
dwarfism (achondroplasia)
gigantism (acromegaly)
The genes that we have covered so far affect only one phenotypic character, but most genes are pleiotropic

9. Acromegaly: André the Giant

10. Inheritance pattern of Achondroplasia
Aa x aa
Aa x Aa
dominant inheritance a a A a  Aa Aa AA Aa A A
dwarf
dwarf
lethal a aa aa a Aa aa
50% dwarf:50% normal or 1:1
67% dwarf:33% normal or 2:1

11. How would you know that difference wasn’t random chance?
Epistasis
One gene completely masks another gene
coat color in mice = 2 separate genes
C,c: pigment (C) or no pigment (c)
B,b: more pigment (black=B) or less (brown=b)
cc = albino, no matter B allele
9:3:3:1 becomes 9:3:4
B_C_
B_C_
bbC_
bbC_
_ _cc
_ _cc
How would you know that difference wasn’t random chance?
Chi-square test!

12. Epistasis in Labrador retrievers
2 genes: (E,e) & (B,b)
pigment (E) or no pigment (e)
pigment concentration: black (B) to brown (b)
eebb
eeB–
E–bb
E–B–

13. Polygenic inheritance
Some phenotypes determined by additive effects of 2 or more genes on a single character
phenotypes on a continuum
human traits
skin color
height
weight
intelligence
behaviors

14. Johnny & Edgar Winter
Skin color: Albinism
However albinism can be inherited as a single gene trait
aa = albino
albino Africans
melanin = universal brown color
enzyme
tyrosine
albinism
melanin

15. OCA1 albino
Bianca Knowlton

16. Sex linked traits 1910 | 1933 Genes are on sex chromosomes
as opposed to autosomal chromosomes
first discovered by T.H. Morgan at Columbia U.
Drosophila breeding
good genetic subject
prolific
2 week generations
4 pairs of chromosomes
XX=female, XY=male

17. Classes of chromosomes
autosomal chromosomes
sex chromosomes

18. Discovery of sex linkage
true-breeding
red-eye female
true-breeding
white-eye male X P
Huh! Sex matters?!
100%
red eye offspring F1
generation
(hybrids)
100%
red-eye female
50% red-eye male
50% white eye male F2
generation

19. What’s up with Morgan’s flies?x x RR rr Rr Rr  r r R r R Rr Rr R RR Rr
Doesn’t work that way! R Rr Rr r Rr rr
100% red eyes
3 red : 1 white

20. Genetics of Sex X Y X XX XY X XX XY
In humans & other mammals, there are 2 sex chromosomes: X & Y
2 X chromosomes
develop as a female: XX
gene redundancy, like autosomal chromosomes
an X & Y chromosome
develop as a male: XY
no redundancy X Y X XX XY X XX XY
50% female : 50% male

21. Let’s reconsider Morgan’s flies…x x
XRXR
XrY
XRXr
XRY Xr Y XR Y  XR XR
XRXr
XRY
XRXR
XRY
BINGO! XR Xr
XRXr
XRY
XRXr
XrY
100% red females
50% red males; 50% white males
100% red eyes

22. Genes on sex chromosomes
Y chromosome
few genes other than SRY
sex-determining region
master regulator for maleness
turns on genes for production of male hormones
many effects = pleiotropy!
X chromosome
other genes/traits beyond sex determination
mutations:
hemophilia
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
color-blindness
Duchenne muscular dystrophy affects one in 3,500 males born in the United States.
Affected individuals rarely live past their early 20s.
This disorder is due to the absence of an X-linked gene for a key muscle protein, called dystrophin.
The disease is characterized by a progressive weakening of the muscles and loss of coordination.

23. Human X chromosome Sex-linked usually means “X-linked”
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
Becker muscular dystrophy
Ichthyosis, X-linked
Placental steroid sulfatase deficiency
Kallmann syndrome
Chondrodysplasia punctata,
X-linked recessive
Hypophosphatemia
Aicardi syndrome
Hypomagnesemia, X-linked
Ocular albinism
Retinoschisis
Adrenal hypoplasia
Glycerol kinase deficiency
Incontinentia pigmenti
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome
Menkes syndrome
Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathy
Choroideremia
Cleft palate, X-linked
Spastic paraplegia, X-linked,
uncomplicated
Deafness with stapes fixation
PRPS-related gout
Lowe syndrome
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
HPRT-related gout
Hunter syndrome
Hemophilia B
Hemophilia A
G6PD deficiency: favism
Drug-sensitive anemia
Chronic hemolytic anemia
Manic-depressive illness, X-linked
Colorblindness, (several forms)
Dyskeratosis congenita
TKCR syndrome
Adrenoleukodystrophy
Adrenomyeloneuropathy
Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy
Diabetes insipidus, renal
Myotubular myopathy, X-linked
Androgen insensitivity
Chronic granulomatous disease
Retinitis pigmentosa-3
Norrie disease
Retinitis pigmentosa-2
Sideroblastic anemia
Aarskog-Scott syndrome
PGK deficiency hemolytic anemia
Anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia
Agammaglobulinemia
Kennedy disease
Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease
Alport syndrome
Fabry disease
Albinism-deafness syndrome
Fragile-X syndrome
Immunodeficiency, X-linked,
with hyper IgM
Lymphoproliferative syndrome
Ornithine transcarbamylase
deficiency
Human X chromosome
Sex-linked
usually means “X-linked”
more than 60 diseases traced to genes on X chromosome

24. Map of Human Y chromosome?
< 30 genes on Y chromosome
Sex-determining Region Y (SRY)
linked
Channel Flipping (FLP)
Catching & Throwing (BLZ-1)
Self confidence (BLZ-2) note: not linked to ability gene
Devotion to sports (BUD-E)
Addiction to death & destruction movies (SAW-2)
Scratching (ITCH-E)
Spitting (P2E)
Inability to express affection over phone (ME-2)
Selective hearing loss (HUH)
Total lack of recall for dates (OOPS)
Air guitar (RIF)

25. Hemophilia is a sex-linked recessive trait defined by the absence of one or more clotting factors.
These proteins normally slow and then stop bleeding.
Individuals with hemophilia have prolonged bleeding because a firm clot forms slowly.
Bleeding in muscles and joints can be painful and lead to serious damage.
Individuals can be treated with intravenous injections of the missing protein.

26. Hemophilia XHXh XHY Hh x HH XH XHXh XH Y Xh XHXH XHXH XHY XHY XH Xh XH
sex-linked recessive
Hemophilia
XHXh
XHY
Hh x HH XH
XHXh XH Y
male / sperm Xh
XHXH
XHXH
XHY
XHY XH Xh
female / eggs XH
XHY
XHXh
XHXh
XhY
XhY Y
carrier
disease

27. X-inactivation Female mammals inherit 2 X chromosomes XH XHXh Xh
one X becomes inactivated during embryonic development
condenses into compact object = Barr body
which X becomes Barr body is random
patchwork trait = “mosaic”
patches of black
XH
XHXh
Xh
tricolor cats can only be female
patches of orange

28. Male pattern baldness Sex influenced trait
autosomal trait influenced by sex hormones
age effect as well = onset after 30 years old
dominant in males & recessive in females
B_ = bald in males; bb = bald in females

29. Environmental effects
Phenotype is controlled by both environment & genes
Human skin color is influenced by both genetics & environmental conditions
Coat color in arctic fox influenced by heat sensitive alleles
The relative importance of genes & the environment in influencing human characteristics is a very old & hotly contested debate
a single tree has leaves that vary in size, shape & color, depending on exposure to wind & sun
for humans, nutrition influences height, exercise alters build, sun-tanning darkens the skin, and experience improves performance on intelligence tests
even identical twins — genetic equals — accumulate phenotypic differences as a result of their unique experiences
Color of Hydrangea flowers is influenced by soil pH

30. Any Questions?

31. Human Genetics 1 2 3 4 5 6

32. Objectives: Explain and interpret Pedigrees.
Understand different patterns of inheritance for human genetic diseases.

33. Pedigree analysis
Pedigree analysis reveals Mendelian patterns in human inheritance
data mapped on a family tree
= male
= female
= male w/ trait
= female w/ trait

34. Simple pedigree analysis
What’s the likely inheritance pattern?
Simple pedigree analysis 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

35. Genetic counseling
Pedigree can help us understand the past & predict the future
Thousands of genetic disorders are inherited as simple recessive traits
from benign conditions to deadly diseases
albinism
cystic fibrosis
Tay sachs
sickle cell anemia
PKU

36. sequence individual genes
Genetic testing
sequence individual genes

37. Recessive diseases
The diseases are recessive because the allele codes for either a malfunctioning protein or no protein at all
Heterozygotes (Aa)
carriers
have a normal phenotype because one “normal” allele produces enough of the required protein

38. Heterozygote crosses Aa x Aa A a Aa A a AA Aa AA Aa A a A a Aa Aa aa
Heterozygotes as carriers of recessive alleles
Aa x Aa A a Aa A a
male / sperm AA Aa AA Aa A a
female / eggs
carrier A a Aa Aa aa Aa aa
carrier
disease

39. Cystic fibrosis (recessive)
Primarily whites of European descent
strikes 1 in 2500 births
1 in 25 whites is a carrier (Aa)
normal allele codes for a membrane protein that transports Cl- across cell membrane
defective or absent channels limit transport of Cl- & H2O across cell membrane
thicker & stickier mucus coats around cells
mucus build-up in the pancreas, lungs, digestive tract & causes bacterial infections
without treatment children die before 5; with treatment can live past their late 20s
normal lung tissue
Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disease that is relatively common in the U.S. Cystic fibrosis affects multiple parts of the body including the pancreas, the sweat glands, and the lungs. When someone has cystic fibrosis, they often have lots of lung problems. The cause of their lung problems is directly related to basic problems with diffusion and osmosis in the large airways of the lungs.
People without cystic fibrosis have a small layer of salt water in the large airways of their lungs. This layer of salt water is under the mucus layer which lines the airways. The mucus layer in the airways helps to clear dust and other inhaled particles from the lungs.

40. bacteria & mucus build up mucus secreting glands
Chloride channel
transports salt through protein channel out of cell
Osmosis: H2O follows Cl–
Effect on Lungs
normal lungs
airway
Cl–
Cl– channel
H2O
cells lining lungs
cystic fibrosis
Cl–
H2O
In people without cystic fibrosis, working cystic fibrosis proteins allow salt (chloride) to enter the air space and water follows by osmosis. The mucus layer is dilute and not very sticky.
In people with cystic fibrosis, non-working cystic fibrosis proteins mean no salt (chloride) enters the air space and water doesn't either. The mucus layer is concentrated and very sticky.
People with cystic fibrosis have lung problems because:
Proteins for diffusion of salt into the airways don't work. (less diffusion)
Less salt in the airways means less water in the airways. (less osmosis)
Less water in the airways means mucus layer is very sticky (viscous).
Sticky mucus cannot be easily moved to clear particles from the lungs.
Sticky mucus traps bacteria and causes more lung infections.
Therefore, because of less diffusion of salt and less osmosis of water, people with cystic fibrosis have too much sticky mucus in the airways of their lungs and get lots of lung infections. Thus, they are sick a lot.
bacteria & mucus build up
thickened mucus hard to secrete
mucus secreting glands

41. delta F508
loss of one amino acid

42. Tay-Sachs (recessive)
Primarily Jews of eastern European (Ashkenazi) descent & Cajuns (Louisiana)
strikes 1 in 3600 births
100 times greater than incidence among non-Jews
non-functional enzyme fails to breakdown lipids in brain cells
fats collect in cells destroying their function
symptoms begin few months after birth
seizures, blindness & degeneration of muscle & mental performance
child usually dies before 5yo

43. Sickle cell anemia (recessive)
Primarily Africans
strikes 1 out of 400 African Americans
high frequency
caused by substitution of a single amino acid in hemoglobin
when oxygen levels are low, sickle-cell hemoglobin crystallizes into long rods
deforms red blood cells into sickle shape
sickling creates pleiotropic effects = cascade of other symptoms

44. hydrophilic amino acid hydrophobic amino acid
Sickle cell anemia
Substitution of one amino acid in polypeptide chain
hydrophilic amino acid
hydrophobic amino acid

45. Doctors can use regular blood transfusions to prevent brain damage and new drugs to prevent or treat other problems.

46. Sickle cell phenotype 2 alleles are codominant
both normal & mutant hemoglobins are synthesized in heterozygote (Aa)
50% cells sickle; 50% cells normal
carriers usually healthy
sickle-cell disease triggered under blood oxygen stress
exercise

47. Heterozygote advantage
Malaria
single-celled eukaryote parasite spends part of its life cycle in red blood cells
In tropical Africa, where malaria is common:
homozygous dominant individuals die of malaria
homozygous recessive individuals die of sickle cell anemia
heterozygote carriers are relatively free of both
reproductive advantage
High frequency of sickle cell allele in African Americans is vestige of African roots

48. Prevalence of Malaria
Prevalence of Sickle Cell Anemia

49. Huntington’s chorea (dominant)
1872
Dominant inheritance
repeated mutation on end of chromosome 4
mutation = CAG repeats
glutamine amino acid repeats in protein
one of 1st genes to be identified
build up of “huntingtin” protein in brain causing cell death
memory loss
muscle tremors, jerky movements
“chorea”
starts at age 30-50
early death
10-20 years after start
Testing… Would you want to know?

50. Genetics & culture Why do all cultures have a taboo against incest?
laws or cultural taboos forbidding marriages between close relatives are fairly universal
Fairly unlikely that 2 unrelated carriers of same rare harmful recessive allele will meet & mate
but matings between close relatives increase risk
“consanguineous” (same blood) matings
individuals who share a recent common ancestor are more likely to carry same recessive alleles

51. A hidden disease reveals itselfAa x
AA x Aa A a
male / sperm A
male / sperm AA AA Aa Aa AA AA A a
female / eggs A a
female / eggs Aa Aa aa aa Aa Aa
• increase carriers in population • hidden disease is revealed

52. Any questions?