1. The Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
Chapter 11
The Nervous System and Nervous Tissue

2. Functions of the Nervous System
Sensory input
Information gathered by sensory receptors about internal and external changes
Integration
Interpretation of sensory input
Motor output
Activation of effector organs (muscles and glands) produces a response

3. Sensory input
Integration
Motor output
Figure 11.1

4. Divisions of the Nervous System
Central nervous system (CNS)
Brain and spinal cord
Integration and command center
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Paired spinal and cranial nerves carry messages to and from the CNS

5. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Two functional divisions
Sensory (afferent) division
Somatic afferent fibers—convey impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, and joints
Visceral afferent fibers—convey impulses from visceral organs
Motor (efferent) division
Transmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs

6. Somatic (voluntary) nervous system
Motor Division of PNS
Somatic (voluntary) nervous system
Conscious control of skeletal muscles

7. Autonomic (involuntary) nervous system (ANS)
Motor Division of PNS
Autonomic (involuntary) nervous system (ANS)
Visceral motor nerve fibers
Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
Two functional subdivisions
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic

8. Figure 11.2 Central nervous system (CNS)
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Brain and spinal cord
Cranial nerves and spinal nerves
Integrative and control centers
Communication lines between the
CNS and the rest of the body
Sensory (afferent) division
Motor (efferent) division
Somatic and visceral sensory
nerve fibers
Motor nerve fibers
Conducts impulses from the CNS
to effectors (muscles and glands)
Conducts impulses from
receptors to the CNS
Somatic sensory
fiber
Somatic nervous
system
Autonomic nervous
system (ANS)
Skin
Somatic motor
(voluntary)
Visceral motor
(involuntary)
Conducts impulses
from the CNS to
skeletal muscles
Conducts impulses
from the CNS to
cardiac muscles,
smooth muscles,
and glands
Visceral sensory fiber
Stomach
Skeletal
muscle
Motor fiber of somatic nervous system
Sympathetic division
Parasympathetic
division
Mobilizes body
systems during activity
Conserves energy
Promotes house-
keeping functions
during rest
Sympathetic motor fiber of ANS
Heart
Structure
Function
Sensory (afferent)
division of PNS
Parasympathetic motor fiber of ANS
Bladder
Motor (efferent)
division of PNS
Figure 11.2

9. Histology of Nervous Tissue
Two principal cell types
Neurons—excitable cells that transmit electrical signals

10. Histology of Nervous Tissue
Neuroglia (glial cells)—supporting cells:
Astrocytes (CNS)
Microglia (CNS)
Ependymal cells (CNS)
Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
Satellite cells (PNS)
Schwann cells (PNS)

11. Astrocytes
Most abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial cells
Cling to neurons, synaptic endings, and capillaries
Support and brace neurons

12. Astrocytes
Help determine capillary permeability
Guide migration of young neurons
Control the chemical environment
Participate in information processing in the brain

13. (a) Astrocytes are the most abundant CNS neuroglia.
Capillary
Neuron
Astrocyte
(a) Astrocytes are the most abundant CNS neuroglia.
Figure 11.3a

14. Microglia
Small, ovoid cells with thorny processes
Migrate toward injured neurons
Phagocytize microorganisms and neuronal debris

15. (b) Microglial cells are defensive cells in the CNS.
Neuron
Microglial
cell
(b) Microglial cells are defensive cells in the CNS.
Figure 11.3b

16. Range in shape from squamous to columnar May be ciliated
Ependymal Cells
Range in shape from squamous to columnar
May be ciliated
Line the central cavities of the brain and spinal column
Separate the CNS interstitial fluid from the cerebrospinal fluid in the cavities

17. (c) Ependymal cells line cerebrospinal fluid-filled cavities.
Fluid-filled cavity
Ependymal
cells
Brain or
spinal cord
tissue
(c) Ependymal cells line cerebrospinal fluid-filled cavities.
Figure 11.3c

18. Oligodendrocytes
Branched cells
Processes wrap CNS nerve fibers, forming insulating myelin sheaths

19. Myelin sheath Process of oligodendrocyte Nerve fibers
(d) Oligodendrocytes have processes that form myelin sheaths around CNS nerve fibers.
Figure 11.3d

20. Satellite Cells and Schwann Cells
Surround neuron cell bodies in the PNS
Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes)
Surround peripheral nerve fibers and form myelin sheaths
Vital to regeneration of damaged peripheral nerve fibers

21. (forming myelin sheath)
Satellite
cells
Cell body of neuron
Schwann cells
(forming myelin sheath)
Nerve fiber
(e) Satellite cells and Schwann cells (which form myelin) surround neurons in the PNS.
Figure 11.3e

22. Special characteristics:
Neurons (Nerve Cells)
Special characteristics:
Long-lived ( 100 years or more)
Amitotic—with few exceptions
High metabolic rate—depends on continuous supply of oxygen and glucose
Plasma membrane functions in:
Electrical signaling
Cell-to-cell interactions during development

23. Cell Body (Perikaryon or Soma)
Biosynthetic center of a neuron
Spherical nucleus with nucleolus
Well-developed Golgi apparatus
Rough ER called Nissl bodies (chromatophilic substance)

24. Cell Body (Perikaryon or Soma)
Network of neurofibrils (neurofilaments)
Axon hillock—cone-shaped area from which axon arises
Clusters of cell bodies are called nuclei in the CNS, ganglia in the PNS

25. and conducting region)
Dendrites
(receptive regions)
Cell body
(biosynthetic center
and receptive region)
Nucleolus
Axon
(impulse generating
and conducting region)
Impulse
direction
Nucleus
Node of Ranvier
Nissl bodies
Axon
terminals
(secretory
region)
Axon hillock
Schwann cell
(one inter-
node)
Neurilemma
(b)
Terminal
branches
Figure 11.4b

26. Bundles of processes are called
Dendrites and axons
Bundles of processes are called
Tracts in the CNS
Nerves in the PNS

27. Dendrites
Short, tapering, and diffusely branched
Receptive (input) region of a neuron
Convey electrical signals toward the cell body as graded potentials

28. The Axon
One axon per cell arising from the axon hillock
Long axons (nerve fibers)
Occasional branches (axon collaterals)

29. Numerous terminal branches (telodendria)
The Axon
Numerous terminal branches (telodendria)
Knoblike axon terminals (synaptic knobs or boutons)
Secretory region of neuron
Release neurotransmitters to excite or inhibit other cells

30. Axons: Function
Conducting region of a neuron
Generates and transmits nerve impulses (action potentials) away from the cell body

31. Axons: Function
Molecules and organelles are moved along axons by motor molecules in two directions:
Anterograde—toward axonal terminal
Examples: mitochondria, membrane components, enzymes
Retrograde—toward the cell body
Examples: organelles to be degraded, signal molecules, viruses, and bacterial toxins

32. and conducting region)
Dendrites
(receptive regions)
Cell body
(biosynthetic center
and receptive region)
Nucleolus
Axon
(impulse generating
and conducting region)
Impulse
direction
Nucleus
Node of Ranvier
Nissl bodies
Axon
terminals
(secretory
region)
Axon hillock
Schwann cell
(one inter-
node)
Neurilemma
(b)
Terminal
branches
Figure 11.4b

33. Myelin Sheath
Segmented protein-lipoid sheath around most long or large-diameter axons
It functions to:
Protect and electrically insulate the axon
Increase speed of nerve impulse transmission

34. Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
Schwann cells wraps many times around the axon
Myelin sheath—concentric layers of Schwann cell membrane
Neurilemma—peripheral bulge of Schwann cell cytoplasm

35. Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
Nodes of Ranvier
Myelin sheath gaps between adjacent Schwann cells
Sites where axon collaterals can emerge

36. rotates around the axon, wrapping its plasma membrane loosely around
Schwann cell
plasma membrane
Schwann cell
cytoplasm
A Schwann cell
envelopes an axon. 1
Axon
Schwann cell
nucleus
The Schwann cell then
rotates around the axon,
wrapping its plasma
membrane loosely around
it in successive layers. 2
Neurilemma
The Schwann cell
cytoplasm is forced from
between the membranes.
The tight membrane
wrappings surrounding
the axon form the myelin
sheath. 3
Myelin sheath
(a) Myelination of a nerve fiber (axon)
Figure 11.5a

37. Unmyelinated Axons
Thin nerve fibers are unmyelinated
One Schwann cell may incompletely enclose 15 or more unmyelinated axons

38. Myelin Sheaths in the CNS
Formed by processes of oligodendrocytes, not the whole cells
Nodes of Ranvier are present
No neurilemma
Thinnest fibers are unmyelinated

39. Myelin sheath Process of oligodendrocyte Nerve fibers
(d) Oligodendrocytes have processes that form myelin sheaths around CNS nerve fibers.
Figure 11.3d

40. White Matter and Gray Matter
Dense collections of myelinated fibers
Gray matter
Mostly neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers

41. Structural Classification of Neurons
Three types:
Multipolar—1 axon and several dendrites
Most abundant
Motor neurons and interneurons
Bipolar—1 axon and 1 dendrite
Rare, e.g., retinal neurons

42. Structural Classification of Neurons
Unipolar (pseudounipolar)—single, short process that has two branches:
Peripheral process—more distal branch, often associated with a sensory receptor
Central process—branch entering the CNS

43. Table 11.1 (1 of 3)

44. Table 11.1 (2 of 3)

45. Functional Classification of Neurons
Three types:
Sensory (afferent)
Transmit impulses from sensory receptors toward the CNS
Motor (efferent)
Carry impulses from the CNS to effectors

46. Functional Classification of Neurons
Interneurons (association neurons)
Shuttle signals through CNS pathways; most are entirely within the CNS

47. Table 11.1 (3 of 3)

48. Neuron Function
Neurons are highly irritable
Respond to adequate stimulus by generating an action potential (nerve impulse)
Impulse is always the same regardless of stimulus

49. Principles of Electricity
Opposite charges attract each other
Energy is required to separate opposite charges across a membrane
Energy is liberated when the charges move toward one another
If opposite charges are separated, the system has potential energy

50. Definitions
Voltage (V): measure of potential energy generated by separated charge
Potential difference: voltage measured between two points
Current (I): the flow of electrical charge (ions) between two points

51. Definitions
Resistance (R): hindrance to charge flow (provided by the plasma membrane)
Insulator: substance with high electrical resistance
Conductor: substance with low electrical resistance

52. Role of Membrane Ion Channels
Proteins serve as membrane ion channels
Two main types of ion channels
Leakage (nongated) channels—always open

53. Role of Membrane Ion Channels
Gated channels (three types):
Chemically gated (ligand-gated) channels—open with binding of a specific neurotransmitter
Voltage-gated channels—open and close in response to changes in membrane potential
Mechanically gated channels—open and close in response to physical deformation of receptors

54. Figure 11.6 Receptor Neurotransmitter chemical attached to receptor
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Chemical
binds
Membrane
voltage
changes K+ K+
Closed
Open
Closed
Open
(a) Chemically (ligand) gated ion channels open when the appropriate neurotransmitter binds to the receptor, allowing (in this case) simultaneous movement of Na+ and K+.
(b) Voltage-gated ion channels open and close in response to changes in membrane voltage.
Figure 11.6

55. When gated channels are open:
Ions diffuse quickly across the membrane along their electrochemical gradients
Along chemical concentration gradients from higher concentration to lower concentration
Along electrical gradients toward opposite electrical charge
Ion flow creates an electrical current and voltage changes across the membrane

56. Resting Membrane Potential (Vr)
Potential difference across the membrane of a resting cell
Approximately –70 mV in neurons (cytoplasmic side of membrane is negatively charged relative to outside)
Generated by:
Differences in ionic makeup of ICF and ECF
Differential permeability of the plasma membrane

57. Voltmeter Plasma Ground electrode membrane outside cell Microelectrode
inside cell
Axon
Neuron
Figure 11.7

58. Resting Membrane Potential
Differences in ionic makeup
ICF has lower concentration of Na+ and Cl– than ECF
ICF has higher concentration of K+ and negatively charged proteins (A–) than ECF

59. Resting Membrane Potential
Differential permeability of membrane
Impermeable to A–
Slightly permeable to Na+ (through leakage channels)
75 times more permeable to K+ (more leakage channels)
Freely permeable to Cl–

60. Resting Membrane Potential
Negative interior of the cell is due to much greater diffusion of K+ out of the cell than Na+ diffusion into the cell
Sodium-potassium pump stabilizes the resting membrane potential by maintaining the concentration gradients for Na+ and K+

61. The concentrations of Na+ and K+ on each side of the membrane are different.
Outside cell
The Na+ concentration
is higher outside the
cell.
Na+
(140 mM ) K+
(5 mM )
The K+ concentration
is higher inside the
cell. K+
(140 mM )
Na+
(15 mM )
Na+-K+ ATPases (pumps)
maintain the concentration
gradients of Na+ and K+
across the membrane.
Inside cell
The permeabilities of Na+ and K+ across the
membrane are different.
Suppose a cell has only K+ channels...
K+ loss through abundant leakage
channels establishes a negative
membrane potential.
K+ leakage channels K+ K+ K+ K+
Cell interior
–90 mV
Now, let’s add some Na+ channels to our cell...
Na+ entry through leakage channels reduces
the negative membrane potential slightly. K+ K+
Na+ K K+
Na+
Cell interior
–70 mV
Finally, let’s add a pump to compensate
for leaking ions.
Na+-K+ ATPases (pumps) maintain the
concentration gradients, resulting in the
resting membrane potential.
Na+-K+ pump K+ K+
Na+ K+ K+
Na+
Cell interior
–70 mV
Figure 11.8

62. Membrane Potentials That Act as Signals
Membrane potential changes when:
Concentrations of ions across the membrane change
Permeability of membrane to ions changes
Changes in membrane potential are signals used to receive, integrate and send information

63. Membrane Potentials That Act as Signals
Two types of signals
Graded potentials
Incoming short-distance signals
Action potentials
Long-distance signals of axons

64. Changes in Membrane Potential
Depolarization
A reduction in membrane potential (toward zero)
Inside of the membrane becomes less negative than the resting potential
Increases the probability of producing a nerve impulse

65. Depolarizing stimulus
Inside
positive
Inside
negative
Depolarization
Resting
potential
Time (ms)
(a) Depolarization: The membrane potential moves toward 0 mV, the inside becoming less negative (more positive).
Figure 11.9a

66. Changes in Membrane Potential
Hyperpolarization
An increase in membrane potential (away from zero)
Inside of the membrane becomes more negative than the resting potential
Reduces the probability of producing a nerve impulse

67. Hyperpolarizing stimulus
Resting
potential
Hyper-
polarization
Time (ms)
(b) Hyperpolarization: The membrane potential increases, the inside becoming more negative.
Figure 11.9b

68. Graded Potentials
Short-lived, localized changes in membrane potential
Depolarizations or hyperpolarizations
Graded potential spreads as local currents change the membrane potential of adjacent regions

69. (a) Depolarization: A small patch of the
Stimulus
Depolarized region
Plasma
membrane
(a) Depolarization: A small patch of the
membrane (red area) has become depolarized.
Figure 11.10a

70. (b) Spread of depolarization: The local currents
(black arrows) that are created depolarize
adjacent membrane areas and allow the wave of
depolarization to spread.
Figure 11.10b

71. Occur when a stimulus causes gated ion channels to open
Graded Potentials
Occur when a stimulus causes gated ion channels to open
E.g., receptor potentials, generator potentials, postsynaptic potentials
Magnitude varies directly (graded) with stimulus strength
Decrease in magnitude with distance as ions flow and diffuse through leakage channels
Short-distance signals

72. Membrane potential (mV)
Active area
(site of initial
depolarization)
Membrane potential (mV)
–70
Resting potential
Distance (a few mm)
(c) Decay of membrane potential with distance: Because current
is lost through the “leaky” plasma membrane, the voltage declines
with distance from the stimulus (the voltage is decremental ).
Consequently, graded potentials are short-distance signals.
Figure 11.10c

73. Action Potential (AP)
Brief reversal of membrane potential with a total amplitude of ~100 mV
Occurs in muscle cells and axons of neurons
Does not decrease in magnitude over distance
Principal means of long-distance neural communication

74. The big picture 1 2 3 3 4 2 1 1 4 Resting state Depolarization
Repolarization 3 4
Hyperpolarization
Membrane potential (mV) 2
Action
potential
Threshold 1 1 4
Time (ms)
Figure (1 of 5)

75. Generation of an Action Potential
Resting state
Only leakage channels for Na+ and K+ are open
All gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed

76. Properties of Gated Channels
Each Na+ channel has two voltage-sensitive gates
Activation gates
Closed at rest; open with depolarization
Inactivation gates
Open at rest; block channel once it is open

77. Properties of Gated Channels
Each K+ channel has one voltage-sensitive gate
Closed at rest
Opens slowly with depolarization

78. Depolarizing Phase
Depolarizing local currents open voltage-gated Na+ channels
Na+ influx causes more depolarization
At threshold (–55 to –50 mV) positive feedback leads to opening of all Na+ channels, and a reversal of membrane polarity to +30mV (spike of action potential)

79. Repolarizing Phase Repolarizing phase
Na+ channel slow inactivation gates close
Membrane permeability to Na+ declines to resting levels
Slow voltage-sensitive K+ gates open
K+ exits the cell and internal negativity is restored

80. Hyperpolarization Hyperpolarization
Some K+ channels remain open, allowing excessive K+ efflux
This causes after-hyperpolarization of the membrane (undershoot)

81. The AP is caused by permeability changes in the plasma membrane3
Action
potential
Membrane potential (mV)
Na+ permeability 2
Relative membrane permeability
K+ permeability 1 1 4
Time (ms)
Figure (2 of 5)

82. Role of the Sodium-Potassium Pump
Repolarization
Restores the resting electrical conditions of the neuron
Does not restore the resting ionic conditions
Ionic redistribution back to resting conditions is restored by the thousands of sodium-potassium pumps

83. Propagation of an Action Potential
Na+ influx causes a patch of the axonal membrane to depolarize
Local currents occur
Na+ channels toward the point of origin are inactivated and not affected by the local currents

84. Propagation of an Action Potential
Local currents affect adjacent areas in the forward direction
Depolarization opens voltage-gated channels and triggers an AP
Repolarization wave follows the depolarization wave
(Fig shows the propagation process in unmyelinated axons.)

85. Peak of action potential Hyperpolarization
Voltage
at 0 ms
Recording
electrode
(a) Time = 0 ms. Action
potential has not yet
reached the recording
electrode.
Resting potential
Peak of action potential
Hyperpolarization
Figure 11.12a

86. potential peak is at the recording electrode.
Voltage
at 2 ms
(b) Time = 2 ms. Action
potential peak is at the
recording electrode.
Figure 11.12b

87. the recording electrode. Membrane at the recording electrode is
Voltage
at 4 ms
(c) Time = 4 ms. Action
potential peak is past
the recording electrode.
Membrane at the
recording electrode is
still hyperpolarized.
Figure 11.12c

88. Threshold At threshold: Membrane is depolarized by 15 to 20 mV
Na+ permeability increases
Na influx exceeds K+ efflux
The positive feedback cycle begins

89. Threshold
Subthreshold stimulus—weak local depolarization that does not reach threshold
Threshold stimulus—strong enough to push the membrane potential toward and beyond threshold
AP is an all-or-none phenomenon—action potentials either happen completely, or not at all

90. Coding for Stimulus Intensity
All action potentials are alike and are independent of stimulus intensity
How does the CNS tell the difference between a weak stimulus and a strong one?
Strong stimuli can generate action potentials more often than weaker stimuli
The CNS determines stimulus intensity by the frequency of impulses

91. Action
potentials
Stimulus
Threshold
Time (ms)
Figure 11.13

92. Absolute Refractory Period
Time from the opening of the Na+ channels until the resetting of the channels
Ensures that each AP is an all-or-none event
Enforces one-way transmission of nerve impulses

93. After-hyperpolarization
Absolute refractory
period
Relative refractory
period
Depolarization
(Na+ enters)
Repolarization
(K+ leaves)
After-hyperpolarization
Stimulus
Time (ms)
Figure 11.14

94. Relative Refractory Period
Follows the absolute refractory period
Most Na+ channels have returned to their resting state
Some K+ channels are still open
Repolarization is occurring
Threshold for AP generation is elevated
Exceptionally strong stimulus may generate an AP

95. Conduction velocities of neurons vary widely Effect of axon diameter
Conduction Velocity
Conduction velocities of neurons vary widely
Effect of axon diameter
Larger diameter fibers have less resistance to local current flow and have faster impulse conduction
Effect of myelination
Continuous conduction in unmyelinated axons is slower than saltatory conduction in myelinated axons

96. Effects of myelination
Conduction Velocity
Effects of myelination
Myelin sheaths insulate and prevent leakage of charge
Saltatory conduction in myelinated axons is about 30 times faster
Voltage-gated Na+ channels are located at the nodes
APs appear to jump rapidly from node to node

97. Stimulus
Size of voltage
(a) In a bare plasma membrane (without voltage-gated channels), as on a dendrite, voltage decays because current leaks across the membrane.
Stimulus
Voltage-gated
ion channel
(b) In an unmyelinated axon, voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels regenerate the action potential at each point along the axon, so voltage does not decay. Conduction is slow because movements of ions and of the gates of channel proteins take time and must occur before voltage regeneration occurs.
Stimulus
Node of Ranvier
Myelin
sheath
1 mm
(c) In a myelinated axon, myelin keeps current in axons (voltage doesn’t decay much). APs are generated only in the nodes of Ranvier and appear to jump rapidly from node to node.
Myelin sheath
Figure 11.15

98. Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
An autoimmune disease that mainly affects young adults
Symptoms: visual disturbances, weakness, loss of muscular control, speech disturbances, and urinary incontinence
Myelin sheaths in the CNS become nonfunctional scleroses
Shunting and short-circuiting of nerve impulses occurs
Impulse conduction slows and eventually ceases

99. Multiple Sclerosis: Treatment
Some immune system–modifying drugs, including interferons and Copazone:
Hold symptoms at bay
Reduce complications
Reduce disability

100. Nerve Fiber Classification
Nerve fibers are classified according to:
Diameter
Degree of myelination
Speed of conduction

101. Nerve Fiber Classification
Group A fibers
Large diameter, myelinated somatic sensory and motor fibers
Group B fibers
Intermediate diameter, lightly myelinated ANS fibers
Group C fibers
Smallest diameter, unmyelinated ANS fibers