1. J. Goodman – May 2003 Ghosts in the Universe Jordan A. Goodman University of Maryland Fall 2003 The world we don’t see around us

2. J. Goodman – May 2003 Preview

3. J. Goodman – May 2003 Outline How we see particles How we know about things we can’t see (like neutrinos) What is the structure of matter What makes up most of the Universe Neutrino mass “  ” and the Dark side of the force

4. J. Goodman – May 2003 The early periodic table

5. J. Goodman – May 2003 The structure of matter 1869 - Mendeleyev – grouped elements by atomic weights

6. J. Goodman – May 2003 How do we know about Atoms Brownian Motion - Einstein

7. J. Goodman – May 2003 Seeing Atoms

8. J. Goodman – May 2003 Seeing Atoms

9. J. Goodman – May 2003 How do we see into atoms Atomic Spectra –We see spectral lines –The colors and the spacing of these lines tell us about the structure of the atoms E

10. J. Goodman – May 2003 Hydrogen Spectra

11. J. Goodman – May 2003 The structure of matter (cont.) This lead eventually to a deeper understanding Eventually this led to Our current picture of the atom and nucleus

12. J. Goodman – May 2003 What are fundamental particles? We keep finding smaller and smaller things

13. J. Goodman – May 2003 How do we see particles? Most particles have electric charge –Charged particles knock electrons out of atoms –As other electrons fall in the atoms emit light The light from your TV is from electrons hitting the screen The light from your TV is from electrons hitting the screen In a sense we are “seeing” electrons In a sense we are “seeing” electrons

14. J. Goodman – May 2003 The search for fundamental particles Proton and electron –These were known to make up the atom The neutron was discovered Free neutrons were found to decay –They decayed into protons and electrons –But it looked like something was missing In 1930 Pauli postulated a unseen neutral particle In 1933 Fermi named it the “neutrino” (little neutron)

15. J. Goodman – May 2003 How do we know about things we can’t see? Three Body Decay Two Body Particle Decay

16. J. Goodman – May 2003 Detecting light - PMTs

17. J. Goodman – May 2003 Why do we care about neutrinos? Neutrinos –They only interact weakly –If they have mass at all – it is very small They may be small, but there sure are a lot of them! –300 million per cubic meter left over from the Big Bang –with even a small mass they could be most of the mass in the Universe!

18. J. Goodman – May 2003 Facts about Neutrinos Neutrinos are only weakly interacting 40 billion neutrinos continuously hit every cm 2 on earth from the Sun (24hrs/day) Interaction length is ~1 light-year of steel 1 out of 100 billion interact going through the Earth

19. J. Goodman – May 2003 Seeing Big Picture

20. J. Goodman – May 2003 Why do we think there is dark matter? Isn’t obvious that most of the matter in the Universe is in Stars? Spiral Galaxy

21. J. Goodman – May 2003 Why do we think there is dark matter? In a gravitationally bound system out past most of the mass V ~ 1/r 1/2 We can look at the rotation curves of other galaxies –They should drop off But they don’t!

22. J. Goodman – May 2003 Why do we think there is dark matter? There must be a large amount of unseen matter in the halo of galaxies –Maybe 20 times more than in the stars! –Our galaxy looks 30 kpc across but recent data shows that it looks like it’s 200 kpc across

23. J. Goodman – May 2003 Measuring the energy in the Universe We can measure the mass of clusters of galaxies with gravitational lensing These measurements give  mass ~0.3 We also know (from the primordial deuterium abundance) that only a small fraction is nucleons  nucleons < ~0.04 Gravitational lensing

24. J. Goodman – May 2003 What is this ghostly matter? Could it be neutrinos? How much neutrino mass would it take? –Proton mass is 938 MeV –Electron mass is 511 KeV –Neutrino mass of 2eV would solve the galaxy rotation problem – 20eV would close the Universe Theories say it can’t be all neutrinos –They have difficulty forming the kinds of structure observed. The structures they create are too large and form too late in the history of the universe

25. J. Goodman – May 2003 Does the neutrino have mass?

26. J. Goodman – May 2003 Detecting Neutrino Mass If neutrinos of one type transform to another type they must have mass: The rate at which they oscillate will tell us the mass difference between the neutrinos and their mixing

27. J. Goodman – May 2003 Neutrino Oscillations 1  2 =Electron Electron 1  2 =Muon Muon

28. J. Goodman – May 2003 Solar Neutrinos

29. J. Goodman – May 2003 Solar Neutrino Spectrum

30. J. Goodman – May 2003 Solar Neutrino Experiment History Homestake - Radiochemical –Huge tank of Cleaning Fluid ( perchloroethylene) e + 37 Cl e - + 37 Ar –Mostly 8 B neutrinos + some 7 Be –35 years at <0.5 ev/day –~1/3 SSM –(Davis - 2002 Nobel Prize) Sage/Gallex - Radiochemical –“All” neutrinos – e + 71 Ga e - + 71 Ge –4 years at ~0.75 ev /day –~2/3 SSM Kamiokande-II and -III – 8 B neutrinos only – e Elastic Scattering –10 years at 0.44 ev /day –~1/2 SSM –(Koshiba 2002 Nobel Prize)

31. J. Goodman – May 2003 The Solar Neutrino Problem

32. J. Goodman – May 2003 The Solar Neutrino Problem

33. J. Goodman – May 2003 The Solar Neutrino Problem

34. J. Goodman – May 2003 Neutrino Oscillations

35. J. Goodman – May 2003 Neutrino Oscillations Could Neutrino Oscillations solve the solar neutrino problem? –Simple oscillations would require a cosmic conspiracy –The earth/sun distance would have to be just right to get rid of Be neutrinos Another solution was proposed – Resonant Matter Oscillations in the sun (MSW- Mikheev, Smirnov, Wolfenstein) Because electron neutrinos “feel” the effect of electrons in matter they acquire a larger effective mass –This is like an index of refraction

36. J. Goodman – May 2003 MSW Oscillations (Mikheev, Smirnov, Wolfenstein)

37. J. Goodman – May 2003 Oscillation Parameter Space LMA LOW VAC SMA

38. J. Goodman – May 2003 Solar Neutrinos in Super-K The ratio of NC/CC cross section is ~1/6.5

39. J. Goodman – May 2003 Super-Kamiokande

40. J. Goodman – May 2003 Super-Kamiokande

41. J. Goodman – May 2003 Super-K Huge tank of water shielded by a mountain in western Japan –50,000 tons of ultra clean water –11,200 20in diameter PMTs –Under 1.5km of rock to reduce downward cosmic rays (rate of muons drops from ~100k/sec to ~2/sec) 100 scientists from US and Japan Data taking began in 1996

42. J. Goodman – May 2003 Super-K site

43. J. Goodman – May 2003 Super-K site Mozumi

44. J. Goodman – May 2003 Solar Neutrinos in Super-K The ratio of NC/CC cross section is ~1/6.5

45. J. Goodman – May 2003 How do we see neutrinos? muon   electron e e-

46. J. Goodman – May 2003 Cherenkov Radiation Boat moves through water faster than wave speed. Bow wave (wake)

47. J. Goodman – May 2003 Cherenkov Radiation Faster than wave speed Slower than wave speed

48. J. Goodman – May 2003 Cherenkov Radiation Aircraft moves through air faster than speed of sound. Sonic boom

49. J. Goodman – May 2003 Cherenkov Radiation When a charged particle moves through transparent media faster than speed of light in that media. Cherenkov radiation Cone of light

50. J. Goodman – May 2003 Cherenkov Radiation

51. J. Goodman – May 2003 Detecting neutrinos Electron or muon track Cherenkov ring on the wall The pattern tells us the energy and type of particle We can easily tell muons from electrons

52. J. Goodman – May 2003 A muon going through the detector

53. J. Goodman – May 2003 A muon going through the detector

54. J. Goodman – May 2003 A muon going through the detector

55. J. Goodman – May 2003 A muon going through the detector

56. J. Goodman – May 2003 A muon going through the detector

57. J. Goodman – May 2003 A muon going through the detector

58. J. Goodman – May 2003 Stopping Muon

59. J. Goodman – May 2003 Stopping Muon – Decay Electron

60. J. Goodman – May 2003 Solar Neutrinos in Super-K 1496 day sample (22.5 kiloton fiducial volume) Super-K measures: –The flux of 8 B solar neutrinos –Energy spectrum and direction of recoil electron Energy spectrum is flat from 0 to T max –The zenith angle distribution –Day / Night rates –Seasonal variations

61. J. Goodman – May 2003 Solar Neutrinos

62. J. Goodman – May 2003 Energy Spectrum

63. J. Goodman – May 2003 Seasonal/Sunspot Variation

64. J. Goodman – May 2003 Energy Spectrum

65. J. Goodman – May 2003 Expected Day – Night Asymmetry Bahcall

66. J. Goodman – May 2003 Day / Night - BP2000+New 8 B Spectrum Preliminary

67. J. Goodman – May 2003 Day / Night Spectrum

68. J. Goodman – May 2003 Combined Results e to  SK+Gallium+Cholrine - flux only allowed 95% C.L. 95% excluded by SK flux- independent zenith angle energy spectrum 95% C.L allowed. - SK flux constrained w/ zenith angle energy spectrum

69. J. Goodman – May 2003 Combined Results e to  SK+Gallium+Cholrine - flux only allowed 95% C.L. 95% excluded by SK flux- independent zenith angle energy spectrum 95% C.L allowed. - SK flux constrained w/ zenith angle energy spectrum Enlarged View

70. J. Goodman – May 2003 Combined Results e to sterile SK+Gallium+Cholrine - flux only allowed 95% C.L. 95% excluded by SK flux- independent zenith angle energy spectrum 95% C.L allowed. - SK flux constrained w/ zenith angle energy spectrum

71. J. Goodman – May 2003

73. (Like SK)

74. J. Goodman – May 2003 SNO CC Results

75. J. Goodman – May 2003 SNO CC Results CC Signal ES Signal SNO ES Signal Background Super-K

76. J. Goodman – May 2003 SNO CC Results  e = (35 ± 3 )%  ssm

77. J. Goodman – May 2003 Combining SK and SNO SNO measures  e = (35 ± 3 )%  ssm SK Measures  es = (47 ±.5 ± 1.6)%  ssm If Oscillation to active neutrinos: –SNO Measures just  e This implies that    ssm (~2/3 have oscillated) –SK measures  es =(  e + (    /6.5) Assuming osc. SNO predicts that SK will see  es ~ (35%+ 65%/6.5)  ssm = 45% ± 3%  ssm

78. J. Goodman – May 2003 SNO Results (NC)

79. J. Goodman – May 2003 SNO Results (NC/CC) SNO Results

80. J. Goodman – May 2003 SNO Results

81. J. Goodman – May 2003 SNO Day / Night

82. J. Goodman – May 2003 Combined SK and SNO Results

83. J. Goodman – May 2003 SK & SNO (with and w/o RadioChem) All data No Radio- Chem data

84. J. Goodman – May 2003 Kamland – Terrestrial Neutrinos

85. J. Goodman – May 2003 Reactors Contributing to Kamland

86. J. Goodman – May 2003 Kamland Results (Dec. 2002)

87. J. Goodman – May 2003 Kamland

88. J. Goodman – May 2003 Kamland

89. J. Goodman – May 2003 All Experiments Combined with Kamland

90. J. Goodman – May 2003 Smirnov Analysis

91. J. Goodman – May 2003 It looks like the Solar Neutrino problem has been solved! –All Data (except LSND) is now consistent with the large angle MSW solution – e ->  –We have ruled out SMA and Low solutions –Disfavor Sterile Neutrino solutions Neutrinos have mass! –This confirms the atmospheric neutrino results –The Solar  mass difference ~0.003eV Future Experiments – –MiniBoone – LSND effect Solar Neutrino Conclusions

92. J. Goodman – May 2003 Atmospheric Neutrino Production Ratio predicted to ~ 5% Absolute Flux Predicted to ~20% :

93. J. Goodman – May 2003 Atmospheric Oscillations about 13,000 km about 15 km Neutrinos produced in the atmosphere We look for transformations by looking at s with different distances from production SK

94. J. Goodman – May 2003 Atmospheric Neutrino Interactions Reaction Thresholds Electron: ~1.5 MeV Muon: ~110 MeV Tau: ~3500 MeV Charged Current Neutral Current e  e n p W +

95. J. Goodman – May 2003 Telling particles apart MuonElectron

96. J. Goodman – May 2003 Muon - Electron Identification PID Likelihood sub-GeV, Multi- GeV, 1-ring Monte Carlo (no oscillations) We expect about twice as many  as e

97. J. Goodman – May 2003 Super-K Atmospheric Data Set 1289.4 days of data (22.5 kilotons fiducial volume) Data Set is divided into: –Single and Multi Ring events –Electron-like and Muon-like –Energy Intervals 1.4 GeV Also E vis < 400MeV (little or no pointing) –Fully or partially contained muons (PC) –Upward going muons - stopping or through going Data is compared to Atmospheric Monte Carlo –Angle (path length through earth) –Visible energy of the Lepton

98. J. Goodman – May 2003 Low Energy Sample No Oscillations Oscillations (1.0, 2.4x10 -3 eV 2 )

99. J. Goodman – May 2003 Moderate Energy Sample

100. J. Goodman – May 2003 Multi-GeV Sample

101. J. Goodman – May 2003 Multi-Ring Events

102. J. Goodman – May 2003 Upward Going Muons

103. J. Goodman – May 2003 Summary of Atmospheric Results Best Fit for  to  Sin 2 2  =1.0,  M 2 =2.4 x 10 -3 eV 2  2 min =132.4/137 d.o.f. No Oscillations  2 min =316/135 d.o.f. 99% C.L. 90% C.L. 68% C.L. Best Fit Compelling evidence for  to  atmospheric neutrino oscillations Now the most cited exp. HEP paper Skip Tau studies

104. J. Goodman – May 2003 Tau Appearance? Tau’s require greater than 3 GeV in neutrino energy –This eliminates most events Three correlated methods were used –All look for enhanced upward going multi-ring events All show slight evidence for Tau appearance None are statistically significant

105. J. Goodman – May 2003 New Results

106. J. Goodman – May 2003 Neutrinos have mass Oscillations imply neutrinos have mass! We can estimate that neutrino mass is probably <0.2 eV – (we measure  M 2 ) Neutrinos can’t make up much of the dark matter – But they can be as massive as all the visible matter in the Universe! ~ ½ % of the closure density

107. J. Goodman – May 2003 Supernova Cosmology Project Set out to directly measure the deceleration of the Universe Measure distance vs brightness of a standard candle (type Ia Supernova) The Universe seems to be accelerating! Doesn’t fit Hubble Law (at 99% c.l.)

108. J. Goodman – May 2003 Energy Density in the Universe    may be made up of 2 parts a mass term and a “dark energy”  term (Cosmological Constant)    mass  energy Einstein invented  to keep the Universe static He later rejected it when he found out about Hubble expansion He called it his “biggest blunder”  m   

109. J. Goodman – May 2003 The Cosmological Constant

110. J. Goodman – May 2003 What is the “Shape” of Space? Open Universe   <1 –Circumference (C) of a circle of radius R is C > 2  R Flat Universe   =1 – C = 2  R – Euclidean space Closed Universe   >1 – C < 2  R

111. J. Goodman – May 2003 Results of SN Cosmology Project The Universe is accelerating The data require a positive value of  “Cosmological Constant” If    =1 then they find    ~ 0.7 ± 0.1

112. J. Goodman – May 2003 Accelerating Universe

113. J. Goodman – May 2003 Accelerating Universe

114. J. Goodman – May 2003 Measuring the energy in the Universe Studying the Cosmic Microwave radiation looks back at the radiation from 400,000 years after the “Big Bang”. This gives a measure of  0

115. J. Goodman – May 2003 Recent Results - 2002  0 =1  nucleon

116. J. Goodman – May 2003 WMAP -2003

117. J. Goodman – May 2003 WMAP - 2003

118. J. Goodman – May 2003 WMAP Results Universe is 13.7 billion years old with a margin of error of close to 1% Content of the Universe: 4% Atoms, 23% Cold Dark Matter, 73% Dark energy. Fast moving neutrinos do not play any major role in the evolution of structure in the universe. Expansion rate (Hubble constant) value: H o = 71 km/sec/Mpc (with a margin of error of about 5%) New evidence for Inflation (in polarized signal)

119. J. Goodman – May 2003 What does all the data say? Three pieces of data come together in one region    ~ 0.73  m ~ 0.27 (uncertainty  ~0.04) Universe is expanding & won’t collapse Only ~1/6 of the dark matter is ordinary matter (atoms) A previously unknown and unseen “dark energy” pervades all of space and is causing it to expand and accelerate

120. J. Goodman – May 2003 What do we know about “Dark Energy” It emits no light It acts like a large negative pressure P x ~ -  x It is approximately homogenous –At least it doesn’t cluster like matter Calculations of this pressure from first principles fail miserably – assuming it’s vacuum energy you predict a value of   ~ 10 120 Bottom line – we know very little!

121. J. Goodman – May 2003 Conclusion  tota l = 1.02 ± 0.02 –The Universe is flat! The Universe is : ~1/2% Stars ~1/2% Neutrinos ~27% Dark Matter (only 4% is ordinary matter) ~73% Dark Energy We can see ~1/2% We can measure ~1/2% We can see the effect of ~27% (but don’t know what most of it is) And we are pretty much clueless about the other 3/4 of the Universe There is still a lot of Physics to learn!

122. J. Goodman – May 2003 Md Students at Super-K

123. J. Goodman – May 2003 Super-K Disaster - Nov 12, 2001 Chain reaction destroyed 7000 OD and 1000 ID Tubes The cause is not completely understood, but it started with a lower pmt collapse. We are rebuilding!

124. J. Goodman – May 2003 Disaster (Continued)

125. J. Goodman – May 2003 Disaster (Continued)

126. J. Goodman – May 2003 Disaster (Continued)

127. J. Goodman – May 2003 Rebuild at ½ of Original Coverage