1. H.6 Gas Exchange

2. Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a protein found in RBC’s composed of 4 polypeptides, each polypeptide containing a heme group. Each heme group contains an iron atom. Each iron atom can bind with one oxygen molecule (O2)

4. Each time an oxygen molecule binds to a hemoglobin molecule the molecule changes shape.
The shape changes the hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen.
A hemoglobin with no oxygen molecules has the least affinity for oxygen.
A hemoglobin with 3 oxygen has the highest affinity for oxygen
A hemoglobin with 4 oxygen has no affinity for oxygen.

5. Hb4 is used as an abbreviation for hemoglobin
Hb4 is used as an abbreviation for hemoglobin. A hemoglobin with one oxygen would be written as Hb4O2

6. How hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen changes
(No affinity)

7. H.6.1
Partial pressure – the pressure exerted by a single type of gas when it is found in a mixture of gases.
Ptotal= P1+P2+P3…..
Can be calculated by taking the total pressure of a mixture of gases within which a gas occurs, multiplied by the percentage of the total volume the gas occupies.

8. H.6.2 Dissociation Curves
An oxygen dissociation curve is a graph that shows how various forms of hemoglobin and myoglobin perform under various conditions.
X axis is partial pressure of oxygen
Y axis is percent hemoglobin saturation

9. Adding oxygen to hemoglobin is referred to as loading/association
Removing oxygen to hemoglobin is referred to as unloading/dissociation
Hemoglobin is fully saturated when it is bound to 4 oxygen molecules

10. Dissociation curve
As the partial pressure of oxygen increases so the Hb becomes more saturated with oxygen.
There is high affinity by each haem group and oxygen at high partial pressures.
There is low affinity between each haem group and oxygen at low partial pressures.

11. The oxygen dissociation curves show the tendency of hemoglobin to bind to oxygen (affinity) and separate from oxygen (dissociation). Remember: Oxygen can only move in and out of blood in either the lung capillaries or the tissue capillaries. As blood circulates its % saturation does not change, except in the two instances illustrated below

12. Oxygen Loading
Blood in the pulmonary artery has a Po2 = 5 kPa. This blood goes to the alveoli of the lung.
The Alveoli has a Po2 = 16 kPa
Hb is 100% saturated at 10kPa.
The fully saturated Hb will be carried away from the lung in the pulmonary vein

13. Oxygen Unloading
The demand for oxygen within the tissues changes and haemoglobin responds to meet the demand for oxygen.
Blood leaves the lung/ pulmonary vein/ aorta at 100% saturation
Blood arrives at the tissues 100% saturated with oxygen since to exchange is not possible up to that point (thickness of the walls of blood vessels + flow rate)
A typical respiring tissue would have a low Po2 = 5-7 kPa. .Oxygen dissociates from the haemoglobin and diffuses into the cell.

14. Myoglobin
An oxygen binding protein found. in muscle. Myoglobin makes muscle “dark”
Myoglobin has one polypeptide and 1 heme group so can bind to one oxygen

15. Myoglobin allows oxygen to be stored in muscle tissue in case of anaerobic situations at which time the oxygen will dissociate and be used for cellular respiration
This delays the onset of lactic acid fermentation

16. Myoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than haemoglobin and retains its oxygen until very low partial pressures occur.
Such low partial pressures occur when the muscle is working very hard and the oxygen is used up in aerobic respiration.
Myoglobin unloads its oxygen when there is a high rate of respiration such as during intense exercise.
The oxygen is replaced during rest as excess post-exercise oxygen consumption

17. Fetal Hemoglobin
Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin.
In the capillaries of the placenta adult hemoglobin dissociates oxygen and fetal hemoglobin loads that same oxygen.

18. At a partial pressure of Po2 = 5 kPa
At a partial pressure of Po2 = 5 kPa. Adult Hb can retain less than 50% Hb but Fetal HB can associate with a much higher 80 + %. The oxygen dissociates from the adult Hb and is loaded up to the fetal haemoglobin.
The Po2 in fetal tissues is very low due to the high metabolic rate associated with fetal growth rates. Therefore although fetal Hb has a higher affinity for oxygen in such a low partial pressure environment of the fetal tissue it unloads oxygen readily.
At birth the fetal Hb is replaced with adult Hb

19. 6.3 Carbon Dioxide Transport
CO2 is the waste product of ATP production/cellular respiration
It diffuses out of cells into capillary beds where it enters the circulatory system.
It may be transported 3 ways: dissolved in plasma (5%), bound to hemoglobin (10%, forms carbaminohemoglobin), or as bicarbonate ions in the RBC’s (85%)

20. To summarize!

21. H.6.4 The Bohr Effect Oxygen carrying capacity varies with blood pH
Low pH lowers the affinity of Hb for oxygen, oxygen is unloaded
High pH has increases the affinity of Hb for oxygen

22. Increased blood acidity is associated with increasing carbon dioxide levels in the blood.
More CO2  lower pH lower Hb affinity for O2  more O2 released to tissues

23. Most is transported as bicarbonate.
The RBC cytoplasm contains carbonic anhydrase that catalyzes the reaction between CO2 and water to form carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid then dissociates into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate

24. Bicarbonate ions are pumped out of the RBC and chloride ions enter (purpose? I am not sure yet!)
HbO8 acts as a buffer and absorbs hydrogen ions (reducing blood acidity) which reduces hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen. Oxygen is released to the cytoplasm of a cell

25. In the mitochondria, oxygen acts as a proton (H+) acceptor for the oxidation of NADH and FADH

26. (a) The partial pressure of oxygen in the tissue (b) At Pco2 = 3kPa Hb has 50% unloaded its oxygen. (c) At Pco2= 4kPa Hb has approx 80% unloaded its oxygen. (d) At Pco2= 6kPa Hb has approx 90 % unloaded its oxygen.
From: Click4biology.info

27. H.6.5 Effects of exercise on ventilation rate
Exercising muscles produce more CO2which decreases blood pH. (a)
Changes in blood pH are detected by the breathing center in the medulla of the brain (b)
Chemoreceptors in the aorta and the carotid arteries detect the changes in pH and send impulses to the brain stem medulla (c)

28. The cardiac center responds to the same stimuli and increases heart rate (d)
The breathing center stimulates the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles (e)

29. To illustrate:

30. H.6.6 Asthma
In as asthma attack, smooth muscle of the bronchi constrict, restricting airflow to the lung
May be triggered by allergy, exercise, or a variety of other causes
Check this out for more information about asthma!

31. H.6.7 High Altitude
At higher altitude the atmospheric pressure decreases
The partial pressure of oxygen decreases
Hb is less saturated than at sea level
Tissues receive less oxygen
Respiration cannot provide sufficient ATP

32. These factors cause altitude sickness which can cause headache, nausea, weakness and rapid pulse
This can be treated with tylenol, hydration and sometimes oxygen!

33. Physiological changes due to altitude
After an extended period at altitude an individual may adapt to the lower atmospheric pressure in a variety of ways:
Increased red cell number in blood
Increased vascularisation of the muscle
Increases in of myoglobin
Increase in number of mitochondria per muscle cell

34. Increases in the concentration of respiratory enzymes
Improved buffering of pH and utilization of lactate ions (lactic clearance)

35. Athletes often train at high altitude to develop some of these changes in order to enhance performance at lower altitudes
It is the recovery period when changes take place so by sleeping in a hyperbaric chamber, athletes have the benefit of being at high altitude without relocating.

36. Those who live at high altitude are genetically different from the rest of us!
Larger thoracic cavity
Denser alveoli (more per bronchiole)
More hemoglobin
Hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen