1. Physiological adaptations for survival
Chapter 10

2. External & internal environments
External environment refers to the surrounds of an organism- temperature, humidity, wind etc. It can vary widely (even in one day- think about Melbourne weather!)
Internal environment inside organisms need to be maintained within a tolerance range. Eg. Humans internal body temp ( )

3. Homeostasis: keeping within the tolerance range
Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment.
When challenges cause a deviation from the normal conditions, the organism has mechanisms that act to restore the normal state. (Eg Shivering, sweating)
Refer to pg 300 table 10.1

4. Body systems contribute to homeostasis
The two major systems contributing to homeostasis are:
The nervous system (nerves)
The endocrine system (hormones)
Other cells and systems also contribute to homeostasis.

5. Structure of the nervous system
The nervous system consists of:
Brain (CNS)
Spinal cord (CNS)
All nerve cells (PNS)
CNS refers to the Central Nervous system
PNS refers to the Peripheral Nervous system

6. Nerve cells
Nerve cells (AKA neurons) have a large cell body (with the nucleus) and an extension stemming off this called axon- they carry messages to other cells
Also stemming off the cell body are dendrites – they receive messages
See picture pg 302

7. Nerve cells (cont) There are three kinds of neuron:
Affector (sensory) neurons
‘information detectors’ send messages back to the CNS
Effector (motor) neurons
‘responders’ send messages from the CNS, cause cells to respond
Connecting neurons- link neurons together

8. Start from here after temperature regulation

9. Major sense organs: sensing our environment
Sense organs monitor our external environment and send messages back to the CNS in the form of electrical impulses.
When the message reaches the CNS, the brain stimulates effectors to complete a response (to the external stimulus)

10. Over to you....

11. Human Light receptors Light enters the human eye through the cornea
It passes through the lens where it is focussed onto the retina
It contains two kinds of photoreceptors known as rods and cones
Rods and cones contain light sensitive pigments
Fibres lead to the optic nerve at the back of the eye carrying information to the brain
Concentrated in the central region of the retina, cones cells function in high light intensities, detecting colour and detail.
Cones provide us with our central vision
Rod cells detect light with low intensity and can detect movement

12. Human taste receptors
Taste receptors are located in the taste buds on the tongue.
Each tastebuds contains 50 receptors cells.
Receptors transmit encoded information about taste of food in the mouth. The brain then decodes and interprets the information.
These receptors can detect chemical substances in the saliva of the mouth.
Five basic taste: sour, salt, bitter, sweet and umami (a taste sensation produced by monosodium glutamate [MSG] and other glutamates found in fermented foods.

13. Human olfactory receptors
Olfactory receptors are located on bony outgrowths inside the nasal cavity.
In humans they are nerve cells. The fibres from these form the olfactory nerve leading to the brain.
Olfactory receptors in the nose can detect substances at a concentration 10,000 times less than that required for detection by taste receptors.
Some people cannot smell scent: e.g. scent of flowers
The taste of many foods come form the combination of several sensory inputs.
There are 3 types of stimuli:
Olfactory stimuli- arising from the odour of food before and while it is in the mouth
Tactile stimuli- arising from the texture of food
Gustatory stimuli- arising from the taste of dissolved food
Temperature stimuli- such as the heat or coldness of food

14. Touch and other tactile recptors
Receptors to detect stimuli that produce sensations of touch pressure, temperature and pain are distributed over the entire skin surface.
In order to stimulate the receptors an object must make physical contact with the outer body surface
Mammals use their whiskers as extensions of their body, to increase their ability to collect information from their surroundings
Pain is a valuable sensations that tells us that the stimulus is causing tissue damage

15. Ears and hearing
In mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians, sound receptors are concentrated in the ear.
There are three regions in the human ear.
The outer ear is made of cartilage, this leads to the ear canal.
To the middle ear is an air filled cavity. Sound waves cause the eardrum to vibrate and this vibration is then conducted across the middle ear to the inner ear.
The inner ear magnifies the sounds.
The inner ear consists of small coiled structure called the cochlea which is filled in the inner ear. Information about the sound is then encoded into nerve impulses and sent to the brain.

16. Go to chapter review pg 337
Answer Q 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13

17. Detecting temperature change
Core temperature is maintained at about 37 degrees
Changes to external temperature are detected by receptors in the skin: cold and hot receptors
These send a message to the hypothalamus in the brain
The hypothalamus serves as the temperature control centre of the brain

18. Maintaining core temperature
Homeostasis requires a stable internal body temp.
Conduction= transfer of heat to other ‘objects’
Convection= air currents taking heat away
Ways of gaining heat
Ways of losing heat
Basic metabolic processes
Evaporation of sweat
Shivering
Panting
Exercise /muscular activity
Convection
Radiation & conducting TO the body
Radiation and conduction FROM the body

19. Gaining heat & reducing heat loss
Shivering: contraction & relaxation of small muscle groups
Metabolic processes produce heat. The hypothalamus produces TRH which instructs the pituitary to secrete TSH which stimulates the thyroid. The thyroid releases thyroxine which increases metabolic activity
Hypothalamus can instruct blood vessels to constrict (in the skin) to reduce the amount of heat lost via the skins surface
TSH = Thyroid stimulating hormone
TRH= Thyrotropin- releasing hormone

20. Hypothalamus releases TRH Pituitary (stimulated by TRH) releases TSH
Thyroid (stimulated by TSH) releases thyroxine
Thyroxine increases metabolic rate
Body becomes warmer

21. Cooling off
When the core body temperature is set to exceed 37 degrees, the hypothalamus acts to increase heat loss by:
Dilation of blood vessels at the skins surface
Metabolic activity is reduced (secretion of TRH is reduced therefore....TSH is reduced, therefore...)
Sweat glands are activated (evaporation of sweat requires heat energy)

22. Heat source: external or internal
Ectothermic: relies on external heat source eg snake
Poikilothermic: have fluctuating temperatures
Endothermic: have an internal heat source (able to generate their own heat) eg people
Homeothermic: have a constant body temperature

23. Water balance in living organisms
Kidneys- are responsible for water balance. They eliminate nitrogenous wastes and cause water to be reabsorbed
ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and renin act on the kidneys to absorb more water to be returned to the body (to prevent dehydration)

24. Complete biochallenge pg 336