2. Lecture 1 & 2 © 2015

3. Calculate the mass defect and the binding energy per nucleon for a particular isotope.Calculate the mass defect and the binding energy per nucleon for a particular isotope. Define and apply the concepts of mass number, atomic number, and isotopes.Define and apply the concepts of mass number, atomic number, and isotopes.

4. All of matter is composed of at least three fundamental particles (approximations): ParticleFig.SymMassChargeSize The mass of the proton and neutron are close, but they are about 1840 times the mass of an electron. Electron e - 9.11 x 10 -31 kg-1.6 x 10 -19 C  Proton p 1.673 x 10 -27 kg +1.6 x 10 -19 C 3 fm Neutron n 1.675 x 10 -27 kg 0 3 fm

5. Beryllium Atom Compacted nucleus: 4 protons 5 neutrons Since atom is electri- cally neutral, there must be 4 electrons. 4 electrons

6. A nucleon is a general term to denote a nuclear particle - that is, either a proton or a neutron. The atomic number Z of an element is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of that element. The mass number A of an element is equal to the total number of nucleons (protons + neutrons). The mass number A of any element is equal to the sum of the atomic number Z and the number of neutrons N : A = N + Z

7. A convenient way of describing an element is by giving its mass number and its atomic number, along with the chemical symbol for that element. For example, consider beryllium (Be):

8. Lithium Atom N = A – Z = 7 - 3 A = 7; Z = 3; N = ? Protons: Z = 3 neutrons: N = 4 Electrons: Same as Z Example 1: Describe the nucleus of a lithium atom which has a mass number of 7 and an atomic number of 3.

9. Isotopes are atoms that have the same number of protons (Z 1 = Z 2 ), but a different number of neutrons (N). (A 1  A 2 ) Helium - 4 Helium - 3 Isotopes of helium

10. Because of the existence of so many isotopes, the term element is sometimes confusing. The term nuclide is better. A nuclide is an atom that has a definite mass number A and Z-number. A list of nuclides will include isotopes. The following are best described as nuclides:

11. One atomic mass unit (1 u) is equal to one- twelfth of the mass of the most abundant form of the carbon atom--carbon-12. Atomic mass unit: 1 u = 1.6606 x 10 -27 kg Common atomic masses: Proton: 1.007276 u Neutron: 1.008665 u Electron: 0.00055 uHydrogen: 1.007825 u

12. Electron: 0.00055 u = 11.009305 The mass of the nucleus is the atomic mass less the mass of Z = 5 electrons: Mass = 11.009305 u – 5(0.00055 u) 1 boron nucleus = 11.00656 u m = 1.83 x 10 -26 kg Exampe 2: The average atomic mass of Boron-11 is 11.009305 u. What is the mass of the nucleus of one boron atom in kg?

13. Recall Einstein’s equivalency formula for m and E: The energy of a mass of 1 u can be found: E = (1 u)c 2 = (1.66 x 10 -27 kg)(3 x 10 8 m/s) 2 E = 1.49 x 10 -10 J Or E = 931.5 MeV When converting amu to energy:

14. E = mc 2 = (1.00726 u)(931.5 MeV/u) Proton: E = 938.3 MeV Similar conversions show other rest mass energies: Electron: E = 0.511 MeV Neutron: E = 939.6 MeV Example 3: What is the rest mass energy of a proton (1.007276 u)?

15. The Size of Nuclei The size and structure of nuclei were first investigated in the scattering experiments of Rutherford, Using the principle of conservation of energy, Rutherford found an expression for how close an alpha particle moving directly toward the nucleus can come to the nucleus before being turned around by Coulomb repulsion. In such a head-on collision If we equate the initial kinetic energy of the alpha particle to the maximum electrical potential energy of the system (alpha particle plus target nucleus), we have:

16. Nuclear Size and Mass The radii of most nuclei is given by the equation: R = R 0 A 1/3 R: radius of the nucleus, A: mass number, R 0 = 1.2x10- 15 m The mass of a nucleus is given by: m = A u u = 1.66…x10 -27 kg (unified mass unit)

17. Exercise : Estimate the radius of a uranium-235 nucleus. Answer: 7.41 x 10 -15 m

18. Nuclear Density 56 26 Fe is the most abundant isotope of iron (91.7%) R = 1.2x10- 15 m (56) 1/3 = 4.6x10 -15 m ρ= m / V = 2.3x10 17 kg/m 3

19. The Nuclear Force The force that binds together protons and neutrons inside the nucleus is called the Nuclear Force Some characteristics of the nuclear force are: Attractive forces at distance between nucleons equal 0.4fm (in spite of coulomb's force). It is very short range ≈10 -15 m It does not depend on charge, F n-p = F n-n = F p-p (Isobars or Mirror nuclei). It is much stronger than the electric force It is saturated (nucleons interact only with near neighbors) It favors formation of pairs of nucleons with opposite spins. We do not have a simple equation to describe the nuclear force

23. The mass defect is the difference between the rest mass of a nucleus and the sum of the rest masses of its constituent nucleons. The whole is less than the sum of the parts! Consider the carbon-12 atom (12.00000 u): Nuclear mass = Mass of atom – Electron masses = 12.00000 u – 6(0.00055 u) = 11.996706 u The nucleus of the carbon-12 atom has this mass. (Continued...)

24. Mass of carbon-12 nucleus: 11.996706 Proton: 1.007276 u Neutron: 1.008665 u The nucleus contains 6 protons and 6 neutrons: 6 p = 6(1.007276 u) = 6.043656 u 6 n = 6(1.008665 u) = 6.051990 u Total mass of parts: = 12.095646 u Mass defect m D = 12.095646 u – 11.996706 u m D = 0.098940 u

25. The binding energy E B of a nucleus is the energy required to separate a nucleus into its constituent parts. E B = m D c 2 where c 2 = 931.5 MeV/u The binding energy for the carbon-12 example is: E B = ( E B = (0.098940 u)(931.5 MeV/u) E B = 92.2 MeVBinding E B for C-12:

26. An important way of comparing the nuclei of atoms is finding their binding energy per nucleon: Binding energy per nucleon For our C-12 example A = 12 and:

27. The following formula is useful for mass defect: Mass defect m D m H = 1.007825 u; m n = 1.008665 u Z is atomic number; N is neutron number; M is mass of atom (including electrons). By using the mass of the hydrogen atom, you avoid the necessity of subtracting electron masses.

28. Mass defect m D Zm H = (2)(1.007825 u) = 2.015650 u Nm n = (2)(1.008665 u) = 2.017330 u M = 4.002603 u (From nuclide tables) m D = (2.015650 u + 2.017330 u) - 4.002603 u m D = 0.030377 u

29. E B = m D c 2 where c 2 = 931.5 MeV/u E B = (0.030377 u)(931.5 MeV/u) = 28.3 MeV A total of 28.3 MeV is required To tear apart the nucleons from the He-4 atom. Since there are four nucleons, we find that

30. Binding energy per nucleon - determines stability - for 4 He, BE = 28 MeV so BE/nucleon = 7 MeV increase in nearest neighbors increase in Coulomb repulsion dominates FusionFission

31. Curve shows that E B increases with A and peaks at A = 60 – about 8 Mev per nucleon. Heavier nuclei are less stable. Green region is for most stable atoms. For heavier nuclei, energy is released when they break up (fission). For lighter nuclei, energy is released when they fuse together (fusion).

32. Atomic number Z Neutron number N Stable nuclei Z = N 20406080100 40 100 140 20 60 80 120 Nuclear particles are held together by a nuclear strong force. A stable nucleus remains forever, but as the ratio of N/Z gets larger, the atoms decay. Elements with Z > 82 are all unstable.

33. Isotopes are atoms having (a) Same number of protons but different number of neutrons (b) Same number of neutrons but different number of protons (c) Same number of protons and neutrons (d) None of the above