1. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 1 of 29 Capacity Expansion Richard de Neufville Professor of Engineering Systems and of Civil and Environmental Engineering MIT

2. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 2 of 29 Capacity Expansion Objective of Presentation: l Show economics of capacity expansion l Stress contrasting implications of  Economies of scale (expand bigger) and  Discount rate (expand smaller) l Explore optimal expansion policies  Deterministic condition: base case  Uncertain condition: what implications? l Make connection to Flexibility in Design

3. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 3 of 29 Thought Problems Capacity Expansion is a form of flexibility To what extent is garage case general?  Do expansions always require prior design?  Do later modules cost more? l If all modules cost the same, what should our expansion policy be? l Why should we build in advance (apart from implementation time)? l Keep these thoughts in mind… NO NO, sometimes less Build as Needed? Economies of Scale!

4. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 4 of 29 Base case l Given a system with known capacity l For which we anticipate continued steady growth over indefinite future l The question is: What size of capacity addition minimizes present costs ?

5. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 5 of 29 Implication of ‘infinite’ horizon l If growth is steady (e.g.: constant annual amount or percent), l Does optimal policy change over time? l Policy should not change -- Best policy now should be best at any other comparable time l If we need addition now, and find best to add for N years, then best policy for next time we need capacity will also be an N year addition l Best policy is a repetitive cycle

6. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 6 of 29 l Cost of Capacity additions is:  Cost = K (size of addition) a  If a < 1.0 we have economies of scale l Cost of a policy of adding for N years, C(N), of growth annual growth “  ” is:  Initial investment = K (N  ) a  Plus Present Values of stream of future additions. Value in N years is C(N) WHY?  C(N) = K (N  ) a + e - rN C(N)  C(N) = K (N  ) a / [1- e - rN ] Cost assumptions

7. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 7 of 29 l This means exponent a = 1 l Thus for example l Present Value for cyclical payments in Excel is: = PV(DR over cycle beyond year 0, number of cycles, amount/cycle) l How does present cost vary over longer cycles? If Constant Economies of Scale

8. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 8 of 29 Optimal policy in linear case l The general formula for the present value of a series of infinite constant amounts is: PV = (Constant Amount)[ 1 + 1 / (DR over period)] l In linear case:  Constant Amount = K (N  )  DR over period = N (annual DR)  PV = K(N  ) [1 + 1 / N (annual DR)] = = K(  ) [N + 1 / (annual DR)] l In this case, contributions of future cycles is irrelevant. Only thing that counts is first cost, which [ = f (N  )] that we minimize.

9. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 9 of 29 Consider diseconomies of scale l In this case, it is always more expensive per unit of capacity to build bigger – that is meaning of diseconomies of scale l Thus, incentive to build smaller l Any countervailing force? l No ! l In this case, shortest possible cycle times minimize present costs

10. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 10 of 29 … and economies of scale? l Economies of scale mean that bigger plants => cheaper per unit of capacity l Thus, incentive to build larger l Any countervailing force? l Yes! Value of deferring expenses… l Economies of scale are a power function so advantage of larger units decreases, while they cost more now l Best policy not obvious

11. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 11 of 29 Manne’s analysis l Alan Manne developed an analytic solution for the case of constant linear growth l Reference: Manne, A. (1967) Investments for Capacity Expansion: Size, Location and Time- phasing, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA

12. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 12 of 29 Details of Manne’s analysis (1) l Cost of Stream of replacement cycles is: C(N) = K (N  ) a + e - rN C(N) l Thus: C(N) = K (N  ) a / [ 1 - e - rN ] l This can be optimized with respect to N, decision variable open to system designer

13. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 13 of 29 Details of Manne’s analysis (2) l It’s convenient to take logs of both sides log [C(N)] = log [K (N  ) a ] – log [ 1 - e - rN ] = log [N a ] + log [K (  ) a ] - log [ 1 - e - rN ] d(log [C(N)] ) / dN = a/N – r / [ e - rN - 1] = 0 l So: a = rN* / [ e – r N * - 1] l Optimal cycle time, N*, determined by (a, r) which are the known factors -- for assumed conditions

14. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 14 of 29 Key results from Manne l There is an optimal cycle time… l It depends on  Economies of scale: lower “a”  longer cycle  Discount rate: higher DR  shorter cycle l It does not depend on growth rate! l Higher growth rate  larger units l However, this is driven by cycle time Capacity addition = (cycle time)(growth rate)

15. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 15 of 29 Here’s the picture (from Manne) Interpretation: 1. Optimal cycle time defines increment size = growth x yrs 2. Higher discount rate (r) => smaller increments EoS Savings are discounted 3. Greater EoS (smaller a) => larger increments EoS Savings more important Note: Best EoS factor ~ 0.6 Generally, “a” is higher

16. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 16 of 29 Graphical View of Results l Manne’s present costs versus cycle time  steep for small cycle times  quite flat at bottom and for larger cycle times l See following figure… l What are implications?

17. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 17 of 29 Sensitivity of results (Manne) l Total Cost vertically l Cycle Time, N, horizontally l Optimum is flat, around 6.75 years for a = 0.7 and r = 0.1 = 10%

18. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 18 of 29 Applications of M’s Analysis l Still widely used l In industries that have steady growth l In particular in Electric power l See for example l Hreinsson, E. B. (2000) “Economies of Scale and Optimal Selection of Hydropower projects,” Proceedings, Electric Deregulation and Restructuring of Power Technologies, pp. 284-289. -- An application for Iceland

19. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 19 of 29 Design implications l For industries with Economies of Scale, l Which are they? and why? l Electric power, chemical processes l For conditions assumed (constant steady growth forever) …  Small plants (for small N) are uneconomical  Optimum size in range of between 5 and 10 years  Corresponding to maybe 30 to 50% expansion  Results not especially sensitive to higher N  Which is good because forecasts not accurate.

20. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 20 of 29 What if assumptions wrong? (1) l Growth assumed “for ever” … l Is this always so? l Not always the case:  Fashion or technology changes  Examples –  Analog film -- once digital cameras came in  Land lines – once everyone had cell phones

21. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 21 of 29 What if assumptions wrong? (2) l Growth assumed steady…(no variability) l Is this always so? l Generally not correct.  Major economic cycles are common  Examples:  Airline industry  Consumer goods of all sorts  Industrial products….

22. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 22 of 29 Optimal policy if growth stops, decreases l What is the risk? l Building capacity that is not needed l What can designer do about it? l Build smaller, so less reliance on future l What is the cost of this policy? l Tradeoff: higher cost/unit for small plants (when operating at capacity!!) versus saving by not paying for extra capacity

23. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 23 of 29 Take-aways for discussion so far l If no economies of scale (EoS), do not build in anticipation of demand: expand as needed l If EoS, there is a reason to build for anticipated needs – for next 5 to 10 years l Size depends on discount rate, “a” factor l Uncertainty => smaller increments l Point often missed – see example

24. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 24 of 29 Example: Power in S. Africa l Eskom, power generator for South Africa, adopted Manne’s model in mid-1970s l They committed to units of 6 x 600 MW l This led them to over 40% overcapacity within 15 years – an economic disaster! l Aberdein, D. (1994) “Incorporating Risk into Power Station Investment Decisions in South Africa, S.M. Thesis, MIT, Cambridge, MA.

25. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 25 of 29

26. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 26 of 29 Why did oversupply persist? l Build up of oversupply was not sudden, lasted over a decade l Why did system managers let this happen? l Not clear. Some likely explanations:  Managers committed to plan – thus it was too shameful to admit error of fixed plan  They had locked themselves in contractually – no possibility to cancel or defer implementation l In any case, system was inflexible

27. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 27 of 29 What could have been done? l They would have been better off (less unnecessary or premature construction) if they had:  not committed themselves to a fixed plan, but had signaled possibility of change  contractual flexibility to cancel orders for turbines, defer construction (they would have had to pay for this, of course)  Planned for smaller increments l In short, they should have been flexible

28. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 28 of 29 Recap Capacity Expansion Problem l How should system designers “grow” the system over time? l Main tensions:  For early build – if economies of scale  For delays –  defer costs, lower present values  resolution of uncertainties l Need for flexible approach

29. Engineering Systems Analysis for Design Richard de Neufville © Massachusetts Institute of Technology Capacity ExpansionSlide 29 of 29 Summary l Capacity Expansion Issue is a central problem for System Design l Deterministic analysis offers insights into major tradeoffs between advantages of economies of scale and of deferral l In general, however, the uncertainties must be considered l A flexible approach is needed  How much? In what form? l This is topic for rest of class