1. WJEC A2 Unit 3, Crime and Deviance - Measuring Crime

2. Methods of measuring crime Official statistics Victim surveys Self-report studies What are they looking for? Trend – a change over time Pattern – a link between one variable and another e.g criminality and gender. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 2 06/11/2015

3. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 3 06/11/2015 Crime Trend in the UK Over Time This growth in crime is generally reflected globally. However, rates are still low in Japan, Singapore, and Scandinavian countries. Totalitarian states tend to have lower crime rates.

4. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 4 06/11/2015 Reasons For The Rise in Crime More state action: as policing gets better more crimes are detected. More laws: Because of more legislation on the statute book, there are more possible crimes (traffic offences, financial fraud, computer related crimes, etc.) More sensitivity: People are more sensitive to reporting crimes physical and sexual violence to the police. More victims: Because of increased affluence there are more things to steal. As opportunities have risen, so have crimes.

5. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 5 06/11/2015 The Official Crime Rate (OCR) In 1998, common assault, possession of a weapon, assault on a constable and harassment, were added to recorded crime.

6. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 6 06/11/2015 Type of Crime Theft and handling stolen property2,027,516 Total violent crime1,184,702 Burglary679,973 Criminal damage1,185,388 Fraud and forgery278,902 Drug offences142,338 Robbery121,200 Sex offences60,946 Other notifiable offences63,872 Total all offences5,562,691 Official Crime Rate Figures By Crime 2004-05

7. Prison Populations Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 7 06/11/2015 The prison population at 31 December 2011 was 86,172, an increase of 3,117 (4 per cent) compared to 31 December 2010 when the total population was 83,055. This increase includes the impact of the public disorder in UK cities from 6 to 9 August 2011 which resulted in immediate growth in the prison population by around 900 prisoners. Since then the number of prisoners held for public disorder related offences has stayed around 900.

8. Patterns in crime Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 8 06/11/2015 At 31 December 2011, there were:  82,112 males in prison - a rise of 4 per cent over the year  4,060 females in prison - a rise of 1 per cent over the year

9. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 9 06/11/2015

10. Official Crime Rate has been falling since 2002 Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 10 06/11/2015 Is this a trend or a pattern? Write a short paragraph explaining recent patterns and trends in crime.

11. Starter Recap questions Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 11 06/11/2015 Explain some reasons why crime is a social construction What do official statistics tell us about typical criminals? Explain the difference between a pattern and a trend. Explain the trend in crime rates since the 1930s and then since 2002. Why did statistics show a sudden increase in crime in 1998? What does this show about the production of crime statistics?

12. Do official crime statistics give us an accurate picture of crime? Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 12 06/11/2015 Objectives: 1.To be able to give at least 3 reasons why under-reporting and under-recording of crimes takes place. 2.To be able to give examples of crimes which are under-reported and under- recorded. 3. To write a clear definition of the hidden figure of crime.

13. The Hidden figure of crime Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 13 06/11/2015 How does a crime become a statistic in the OCR? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jzdTiM5wS_c Jot down reasons why people do not report crimes Are there any reasons why the police may not record crimes?

14. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 14 06/11/2015 British Crime Survey (BCS) a victim survey The BCS measures the amount of crime in England and Wales by asking 40,000 people about crimes they have experienced in the last year. As of this year it is now called ‘Crime in England and Wales’ The BCS includes crimes which are not reported to the police, so it is an important alternative to the Official Crime Rate. Victims do not report crime for various reasons. Without the BCS the government would have no information on these unreported crimes.

15. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 15 06/11/2015 Recent Crime Rates In 2004/05 the British Crime Survey (BCS) recorded 10.9 million crimes on adults in private households in England and Wales. In 2011 this was 9.6 million. In 2004/05 the Official Crime Rate (OCR) (crimes recorded by the police) was 5.6 million offences in England and Wales. In 2011 this is 4.2 million. In 2004/05 nearly 24% of the population were the victim of some type of crime compared to 44% in 1995

16. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 16 06/11/2015 British Crime Survey Crime Trend

17. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 17 06/11/2015 Underreporting of Crime The British Crime Survey found that: 44% of crime victims felt the incident was not sufficiently serious to report. 33% claimed the police would be unsuccessful in solving the crime, so felt it was not worth reporting it. 22% did not report the crime as they felt the police would not be interested. 4% did not report crimes because they were fearful of reprisals. 4% did not report crimes because of inconvenience.

18. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 18 06/11/2015 Underreporting (Continued) Some crimes are not reported because they are victimless, e.g. drug-taking, smuggling, prostitution, etc. Some crimes are not reported because of the humiliation felt by the victim such as rape, domestic violence, etc. Corporate and white-collar crime is extremely difficult to detect and thus report.

19. Under-reporting On pg 6 identify reasons why these crimes may/may not be reported by the victim. 5 minutes – Information on page 8 of booklets may help you with this. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 19 06/11/2015

20. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 20 06/11/2015 Under-recording: Police as ‘Filters’ Seriousness: the offence may be regarded as too trivial. ‘Social status’ of the victim: important people tend to get a more favoured response than the poor, down and outs and homeless. Classifying the crime: (minor ‘assaults’ may not be investigated but ‘aggravated assaults’ usually are).

21. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 21 06/11/2015 Police as Filters (continued) Discretion: each police officer has the discretion to press charges or let the individual off – even if they are known to be ‘guilty’. (Those whose demeanour is deferential, co-operative and polite are more likely to be let off for minor offences. Consider Howard Becker’s labelling theory. Promotion and relations at work: Police officers have to tread a tightrope between trying to impress senior officers and not appearing too keen (as this makes more work for their colleagues).

22. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 22 06/11/2015 The ‘Cuffing’ of Crime The dishonest practice of not recording crimes is known inside the police as ‘cuffing’ or ‘Spanish practices’. It is suggested by some that the fall in crime in the 1990s was manipulated by police ‘cuffing’ rather than a real fall in crime rates.

23. Under-recording by police Now complete activity on pg 7 identifying reasons why police may/may not record crimes. 5 mins Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 23 06/11/2015

24. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 24 06/11/2015 Dark Figure of Crime Statistics Sociologists argue that the Official Crime Rate seriously underestimates the real or true rate of crime. The difference between the official crime rate and the real crime rate is referred to as the ‘dark-side’ of crime statistics It is estimated by the BCS that only 31% of crimes are reported and recorded.

25. What lies beneath? Draw an iceberg on pg 8 and label it to show the percentage of crime which is hidden, and reasons for under-reporting and under-recording of crime. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 25 06/11/2015 Write your own definition of the hidden figure of crime!

26. Clear Definition would look like this: AO1 The hidden figure of crime is also known as the ‘dark side’ of crime statistics. It refers to the amount of crime that takes place which is not reported by the victim e.g minor theft, or recorded by the police e.g minor assault. These crimes are not shown in the Official Crime Statistics – they are hidden. AO2 ?? How does this answer our question for this lesson? Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 26 06/11/2015

27. Do official crime statistics give us an accurate picture of crime? Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 27 06/11/2015 Objectives: 1.To be able to give at least 3 reasons why under-reporting and under-recording of crimes takes place. 2.To be able to give examples of crimes which are under-reported and under- recorded. 3. To write a clear definition of the hidden figure of crime.

28. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 28 06/11/2015 Self-Report Studies These ask people to honestly confess to crimes they have committed over a period of time. They can be an important way of getting a better picture of some crimes like drug-use. Anne Campbell gave a self-report study to young females and found they had almost as high a crime rate as young males. However, Steven Box argued that if petty crime was removed then the male-female ratio was closer to the official one: 5:1.

29. Weaknesses of Official Statistics They are a social construction as there are many social processes and people involved in their production e.g courts, police and public. Don’t include crimes not reported or recorded Don’t include victimless crimes and crimes involving people under 16. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 29 06/11/2015

30. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 30 06/11/2015 Weaknesses of Victim Studies Relying on people's memory is a problem as recollections may be incorrect or biased. Sometimes people put crimes into the wrong categories. Surveys exclude white-collar crimes such as fraud and corporate crime: these become effectively 'invisible crimes'. People will not report 'victimless crimes' such as drug taking, or prostitution. Murder victims cannot speak – they are deceased. There is an under-reporting of personal attack, domestic violence and sexual crimes, despite anonymity. (Note: the media sensitising issues can encourage people to report).

31. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 31 06/11/2015 Weaknesses of Self-Report Studies Steven Box (1971) argues self-report studies suffer from issues of validity, representativeness and relevance: ‘Validity’: are they true to life? Respondents can forget, play- down or exaggerate the extent of criminal activity they have been involved in. ‘Representativeness’. Since most self-report studies are on young people, they rarely include professional or managerial adults. ‘Relevance': the majority of crimes reported are trivial.

32. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 32 06/11/2015 Functionalist View on Statistics Functionalists share the view of positivists and tend to accept crime statistics uncritically. The functionalist-inspired subcultural theory for example started with the view that crime is a young, working-class, male phenomenon.

33. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 33 06/11/2015 Interactionist/Labelling Theory View of Statistics This interpretive approach sees crime statistics as largely useless and a distortion of reality. They argue statistics are a social construction and tell us nothing about the real level of crime, only who compiled them and how. Labelling theory is more interested in questions such as why some acts are viewed as more deviant than others and why some groups become labelled as deviant.

34. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 34 06/11/2015 Marxist View on Statistics Marxists recognise the systematic bias in favour of the powerful in the application of the law. As a general rule, the higher people are in the social system the less likely they are to be arrested, charged, prosecuted and found guilty. Marxists stress the significant ‘dark-side’ of white-collar and corporate crime that is largely invisible and absent from crime statistics.

35. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 35 06/11/2015 Feminist View on Statistics Feminists argue that crime statistic underplay the extent of females as victims: personal attack; domestic violence, etc. Until recently the police viewed attacks in the home as “domestics” and were reluctant to get involved. Many female victims of physical and sexual attack are reluctant to report offences. (See Chapter 8 for more detail).

36. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 36 06/11/2015 Left Realist View on Statistics Left Realists are almost unique (apart from Functionalists) in accepting that official statistics have some value and should not be rejected out of hand. They accept the statistical view that typical offenders are young, male, working-class and disproportionately black. Using victim studies, they highlight how people (especially the poor and vulnerable) have real fears of crime.

37. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 37 06/11/2015 Statistical Explosion in a Risk Society Ulrich Beck (1995, pictured left) coined the term ‘risk society’ to refer to the shared knowledge of contemporary risks, including rising crime. Mike Maguire (2002) notes how we are bombarded with data not just from the Home Office but researchers, agencies and even victims. This adds to our knowledge and fear of crime. Garland (2001) argues in late modernity we have lost confidence in governments. This explains why when officially the crime rate is falling, many people believe it is still rising.

38. What are the patterns? First of all what are your perceptions about who commits the most crime in terms of ethnicity, gender, age and social class? Do you think crime is increasing in our area, why?

39. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 39 06/11/2015 Fear of Crime

40. What crimes do you fear? What do you do to prevent being a victim? What things might make a person more at risk of being a victim? Discuss in pairs

41. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 41 06/11/2015 Fear of Crime Age: Not only do elderly people fear crime but both males and females under 25 report the highest levels of fear for most types of crime. Gender: Women are almost 3 times as likely to fear physical attack than men. Ethnicity: People from minority ethnic backgrounds fear crime more than the majority White population.

42. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 42 06/11/2015 Fear of Crime of the Over-60s Percentage aged 60 or over feeling 'very' unsafe when walking alone at night, 2004/05 (Source: ONS website www.statistics.gov.uk/)

43. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 43 06/11/2015 Fear of Crime Finding by the Islington Crime Survey (1995) and shared by Left Realism is that there is a real fear of crime amongst the public. The group most likely to be a victim of violence is young males. In 88% of cases they know their attacker. Ironically, deprived inner-city areas and sink housing estates have the highest levels of crime. Such people who are victims of burglary stand a high risk of repeat victimisation.

44. Recent trends according to BCS:- This document is on shared area. You have 30 minutes to research some trends and return to discuss – be prepared to explain the meaning of graphs etc.

45. Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 45 06/11/2015 Reflective Questions We saw how crime is a social construction stemming from Governments changing laws in response to cultural changes and influence of powerful groups. 1. Why does this make comparing crime rates and trends difficult over time? Most judicial systems reward people if they plead guilty. In the USA this is quite open and known as plea bargaining. 2. What impact might this have on the seriousness of crimes admitted to and solved?

46. Writing Task Work in Pairs Create a news article about recent government announcement that crime rates are falling as a consequence of their policies on crime. Use any perspective you wish and be critical !! Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 46 06/11/2015