1. C M Clarke-Hill1 Analysing Quantitative Data Forming the Hypothesis Inferential Methods - an overview Research Methods

2. C M Clarke-Hill2 Formulating the Hypothesis Often in research studies we wish to test whether a particular phenomenon exists or not, or more likely, if a certain relationship between two or more variables is present. This leads the researcher into the need to set or formulate a hypothesis

3. C M Clarke-Hill3 Hypothesising At a simple level we use a hypothesis to allow us to understand the nature of the data that we have collected. We use the hypothesis to show that a particular set of facts about a population is true. In such a situation when we set a hypothesis we are really setting THREE hypotheses, as the creation of one implies two others. No I have not been drinking !!

4. C M Clarke-Hill4 Hypothesis For example. Let us say that we want to establish that Dutch consumers are more likely to own bicycles than British consumers. H1: A greater proportion of Dutch consumers own bicycles than of British consumers H2: A smaller proportion of Dutch consumers own bicycles than of British consumers H3: The proportions of Dutch and British consumers who own bicycles are the same.

5. C M Clarke-Hill5 Hypothesis Any one of the three hypotheses could reflect the the actual situation. The hypotheses that have been constructed are: –Mutually exclusive –Mutually exhaustive Competing hypotheses - support of one implies the rejection of others.

6. C M Clarke-Hill6 Hypothesis What this does not tell us is which WAY the relationship is Look at the descriptive statistics for that. Often we want to test a relationship between a set of variables so that we can be more certain about something.

7. C M Clarke-Hill7 Hypothesis The Null Hypothesis - the term null hypothesis reflects the concept that this is a hypothesis of NO difference. For this reason the null hypothesis always includes a statement of equality. The Alternative Hypothesis - is the complement of the null hypothesis, that is it postulates a difference or an inequality. HINT: only the null hypothesis can be tested. Also we can never PROVE a hypothesis.

8. C M Clarke-Hill8 Hypothesis When the null hypothesis is rejected it is only then that we obtain indirect support for the alternative hypothesis. We test pairs of hypotheses. Because we are almost always dealing with samples, we need to understand the nature of our sample and its population, and the degree of significance we require.

9. C M Clarke-Hill9 Hypothesis Steps in Hypothesis testing: Formulate the null hypothesis Specify the significance level Select an appropriate statistical test Identify the probability distribution of the test statistic and define the region of rejection Compute the value of the test statistic and decide whether to accept of reject the null hypothesis. See Saunders & Thornhill page 316

10. C M Clarke-Hill10 Some test that can be used Typical questions: Are the variables significantly associated Are these groups significantly different What is the strength of the relationship between the variables and is it significant Can I make any predictions. Hint - be careful - correlation vs causation problems

11. C M Clarke-Hill11 Tests typically used Chi-Squared Test - tests whether the values for a set of variables are independent or associated. It is based on a comparison. You create a Chi-squared contingency table from your data set by using cross tabulations. Chi-square tests are commonly used with questionnaire data. Use with significance levels. Hint - changing the levels of significance can alter the association between the variables

12. C M Clarke-Hill12 Tests If you want to test whether or not two groups or categories are significantly different, then use one of the t-tests. If we wish to test the same thing but with more than two groups we then have to look at the one-way ANOVA and use the F- Statistic

13. C M Clarke-Hill13 Tests How do we assess the strength of a relationship ? We use the correlation co-efficient. This allows us to think about the Cause and the Effect issue. Smoking and Cancer. Correlation co-efficient is between +1 & -1 We speak of positive or negative correlations

14. C M Clarke-Hill14 Tests Correlations are useful to the analyst. It allows the researcher to model the variables. We can also use tests to measure the strength of the relationship. Pearson’s product moment correlation or the Spearman’s rank correlation is suitable. Correlations usually generate equations from plotted data. At its simplest, we can correlate 2 variables say wages and prices.

15. C M Clarke-Hill15 Cause and Effect Cause and Effect can be forecast using regression analysis. We can create equations to model the relationship between the variables - two - simple regression, more that two - multiple regression. From the calculation we can estimate the Regression Co-efficient or R 2. Again tests for significance will apply.

16. C M Clarke-Hill16 Cause and Effect The regression equations and analysis will also tell us not only the confidence that we have but also the percentage of coverage. For example : Only 14 % of business success was explained by the firm’s Marketing Relationships.

17. C M Clarke-Hill17 Cause and Effect Correlation does not prove causality. All that is expressed is the degree of covariance between the variables. Any notion of causuality must come from practical knowledge or theoretical insight into the subject matter, preferably supported by longitudinal data. Viz: Smoking and Cancer, Passive Smoking and Cancer etc.

18. C M Clarke-Hill18 Other Statistical Tools for Analysis Multivariate Analysis Cluster Analysis Factor Analysis etc...

19. C M Clarke-Hill19 Multivariate Analysis This is a variation on the ANOVA, involving multiple variables. It is one of the most versatile of methods. Often known as MANOVA and used in experimental design. You must really know your stats to set up a MANOVA table. SPSS does it for you.

20. C M Clarke-Hill20 Cluster Analysis Used to reduce the complexity of your data. Cluster Analysis seeks to reduce the number of objects for which measurements have been made. By looking at the similarities and differences between the scores, each object is grouped with others having similar characteristics to form clusters. Cluster analysis is widely used in segmentation studies

21. C M Clarke-Hill21 Factor Analysis Refers to techniques that aims to describe a large number of variables by means of a smaller set of composite variables called factors and thus help us interpret the data. This is known as Common Factor Analysis. The original variables can then be discussed in terms of the common underlying dimensions.

22. C M Clarke-Hill22 Some texts to look up Diamantopoulos and Schlegelmilch - Taking the fear out of Data Analysis, Dryden Press, 1997. ( EXCELLENT) Hooley and Hussey - Quantitative Methods in Marketing, Dryden Press, 1995. An excellent collection of papers. Robson - Real World Research, Blackwell, 1993. An excellent RM 499 book to complement Saunders et al.