1. CHAPTER 24 : GAUSS’S LAW
24.1) ELECTRIC FLUX
An electric field – uniform in both magnitude and direction (Fig. 24.1)
Area = A
FIGURE (24.1)
The field lines penetrate a rectangular surface of area A, which is perpendicular to the field.
The number of lines per unit area (line density) is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field.
The total number of lines penetrating the surface is proportional to the product EA.

2. Electric flux,
(24.1)
Newton-meters squared per coulomb
Nm2 / C
Electric flux is propotional to the number of electric field lines penetrating some surface.
Example (24.1) : Flux Through a Sphere
What is the electric flux through a sphere that has a radius of 1.00 m and carries a charge of C at its center?

3. The flux through A = The flux through A’
If the surface under consideration is not perpendicular to the field, the flux through it must be less than that given by Equation (24.1).
Figure (24.2) – the normal to the surface of area A is at an angle to the uniform electric field. A
Normal
A’ = A cos
FIGURE (24.2)
The number of lines that cross this area A is equal to the number that cross the area A’, which is a projection of area A aligned perpendicular to the field.
The flux through A = The flux through A’

4. (24.2)
Max (EA) – surface is perpendicular to the field
Zero – surface is parallel to the field.
Consider a general surface divided up into a large number of small elements, each of area A.
FIGURE (24.3)
A vector
its magnitude represents the area of the ith element of the surface.
its direction is defined to be perpendicular to the surface element.
The electric flux through this element is :

5. The sum is replace by an integral.
Therefore, the general definition of electrix flux is :
(24.3)
FIGURE (24.4)
The vector
- point in different directions for the various surface elements
- but at each point they are normal to the surface
- and, by convention, always point outward.

6. At the element labeled   
The field lines :
Inside to outside
Graze the surface
(perpendicular to the vector )
Outside to inside
The flux :
Is positive
Is negative
( because )

7. The net flux through the surface is proportional to the net number of lines leaving the surface.
The net number = the number leaving the surface minus the number entering the surface.
Leaving > entering  the net flux is positive.
Leaving < entering  the net flux is negative.
The net flux through a close surface :
(24.4)
Example (24.2) : Flux Through a Cube
Consider a uniform electric field oriented in the x-direction. Find the net electric flux through the surface of a cube of edges , oriented as shown in Figure (24.5).

8. y     x z
FIGURE (24.5)

9. + 24.2) GAUSS’S LAW Gaussian surface r q FIGURE (24.6) Note :
From equation (23.4) – the magnitude of the electric field every where on the surface of the sphere is E = keq / r2.
From example (24.1) – the field lines are directed radially outward and hence, perpendicular to the surface at every point on the surface.
At each surface point, is parallel to the vector representing a local element of area surrounding the surface point.

10. Therefore :
From equation (24.4), the net flux through the gaussioan surface is :
Because the surface is spherical :
The net flux through the gaussian surface is :
where
, the equation becomes :
(24.5)

11. FIGURE (24.7)
From equation (24.5), the flux that passes through S1 has the value :
The flux is proportional to the number of electric field lines passing through a surface.
Figure (24.7) – the number of lines through S1 = the number of lines through the nonspherical surfaces S2 and S3.
Conclusion - the net flux through any closed surface is independent of the shape of that surface.
The net flux through any closed surface surrounding a point charge q is given by :

12. q
Any electric field line that enters the surface leaves the surface at another point.
The number of electric fiels lines entering the surface = the number leaving the surface.
Conclusion – the net electric flux through a closed surface that surrounds no charge is zero.
FIGURE (24.8)
The electric field due to many charges is the vector sum of the electric fields produced by the individual charges.
The flux through any closed surface :

13. q1 q2 q3 The surface S surrounds only one charge, q1.
Hence, the net flux through S is q1 / o.
The flux through S due to charges q2 and q3 outside it is zero because each electric field line that enters S at one point leaves it at another.
S’’ S S’ q1 q3 q2
FIGURE (24.9)
The surface S’ surrounds charges q2 and q3.
Hence, the net flux through it is (q2+q3) / o.
The net flux through surface S’’ is zero because there is no charge inside this surface.
That is, all the electric field lines that enter S’’ at one point leave at another.

14. Gauss’s Law = The net flux through any close surface is :
= The electric field at any point on the surface (the total electric field)
qin = the net charge inside the surface
Example (24.3)
A spherical gaussian surface surrounds a point charge q. Describe what happens to the total flux through the surface if :
the charge is tripled (Answer : is tripled)
the radius of the sphere is doubled (Answer : does not change)
the surface is changed to a cube (Answer : does not change)
the charge is moved to another location inside the surface. (Answer : does not change)

15. 24.3) APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO CHARGED INSULATORS
Choosing the gaussian surface is to determine a surface that satisfies one or more of the following conditions :
The value of the electric field is constant over the surface.
and are parallel - so the dot product in eauation (24.6) can be expressed as a simple algebraic product EdA.
and are perpendicular – the dot product in equation (24.6) is zero.
The field can be argued to be zero over the surface.
Example (24.4) : The Electric Field Due to a Point Charge
Starting with Gauss’s Law, calculate the electric field due to an isolated point charge q.
FIGURE (24.10)

16. Example (24.5) : A spherically Symmetric Charge Distribution
An insulating solid sphere of radius a has a uniform volume charge density  and carries a total positive charge Q (Fig ).
Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at a point outside the sphere.
Find the magnitude of the electric field at a point inside the sphere. r a
Gaussian sphere
(a)
(b)
FIGURE (24.11)
FIGURE (24.12)

17. Example (24.6)
A thin spherical shell of radius a has a total charge Q distributed uniformly over its surface (Fig (24.13a)). Find the electric field at points (a) outside and (b) inside the shell. a +
(b) r
Gaussian surface a +
(c) r
Gaussian surface a
Ein = 0 E +
(a)
FIGURE (24.13)

18. Example (24.7) : A Cylindrically Symmetric Charge Distribution
Find the electric field a distance r from a line of positive charge of infinite length and constant charge per unit length  (Figure (24.14a).
FIGURE (24.14)
Example (24.8) : A Nonconducting Plane of Charge
Find the electric field due to a nonconducting, infinite plane of positive charge with uniform surface charge density .
FIGURE (24.15)
Example (24.9) : Conceptual
Explain why Gauss’s Law cannot be used to calculate the electric field near an electric dipole, a charged disk, or a triangle with a point charge at each corner.

19. 24.4) CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
Electrical conductor contains charges (electrons) – not bound to any atom are free to move about.
Electrostatic equilibrium – no net motion of charge
A conductor in electric equilibrium has the following properties :
The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.
If an isolated conductor carries a charge, the charge resides on its surface.
The electric field just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the conductor and has a magnitude  / o, where  is the surface charge density at that point.
On an irregularly shaped conductor, the surface charge density is greatest at locations where the radius of curvature of the surface is smallest.

20. How this zero field is accomplished- + E
FIGURE (24.16)
How this zero field is accomplished
Free electrons are uniformly distributed throughout the conductor
Free electrons accelerate to the left (Figure (24.16))
A plane of negative charge present on the left surface
A plane of positive charge on the right surface
An additional electric field inside the conductor that opposes the external field
The first property
The electric field inside the conductor must be zero under the assuption that we have electrostatic equilibrium.
Not zero - free charges in the conductor would accelerate under the action of the field.
The motion of electrons – mean that the conductor is not in electrostatic equilibrium.
The existence of electrostatic equilibrium is consistent only with a zero field in the conductor.

21. The surface charge density increases
The magnitude of the internal field = the external field
The net result is a net field of zero inside the conductor
FIGURE (24.17)
The electric field every where inside the conductor is zero – electrostatic equilibrium.
The electric field must be zero at every point on the gaussian surface.
The net flux through this gaussian surface is zero.
From this result and Gauss’s Law – the net charge inside the gaussian surface is zero.
There can be no net charge inside the gaussian surface (which is arbitrarily close to the conductor’s surface) – any net charge on the conductor must reside on its surface.
Time for a good conductor to reach equilibrium is of the order of s - instantaneous
Second property
Gauss’s Law
A gaussian surface – inside the conductor, close to the conductor’s surface.

22. Third property
Gauss’s Law
Draw a gaussian surface – a small cylinder whose end faces are parallel to the surface of the conductor (Figure (24.18)
Part of the cylinder is just outside the conductor, and part is inside
The field is normal to the conductor’s surface – electrostatic equilibrium.
If E had a component parallel to the conductor’s surface, the free charges would move along the surface – the conductor would not be in equilibrium.
No flux through this part of the gaussian surface because E is parallel to the surface.
There is no flux through the flat face of the cylinder inside the conductor because here E=0 (condition (4)). A En +
FIGURE (24.18)

23. The net flux through the gaussian surface is that through only the flat face outside the conductor, where the field is perpendicular to the gaussian surface.
Using conditions (1) and (2) for this face, the flux is EA, where E = the electric field just outside the conductor, A = the area of the cylinder’s face.
Applying Gauss’s Law to this surface, we obtain :
Where qin = A
Solving for E gives :
(24.9)
Electric field just outside a charged conductor

24. Charge Distribution Electric Field Location
Insulating sphere of radius R, uniform charge density, and total charge Q.
r > R
r < R
Thin spherical shell of radius R and total charge Q.
Line charge of infinite length and charge per unit length 
Outside the line
Nonconductiong, infinite charged plane having surface charge density 
Everywhere outside the plane
Conductor having surface charge density 
Just outside the conductor
Inside the conductor