1. Anthropological Methods Anthropology 330 Kimberly Porter Martin

2. Anthropological Methods There are two general strategies used to study culture in anthropology: 1. Ethnography – the detailed study of one culture 2. Ethnology – the comparative study of cultures Ethnographies provide the data; ethnology draws generalizations.

3. What is Ethnography? DEFINITION Ethnography is the detailed description of a single culture through fieldwork and participant observation. KEY COMPONENTS 1. Ethnography can be both a process and a product 2. The ethnography process involves fieldwork and first hand experience studying and participating in another culture 3. The ethnography product can be presented in book, film or video form

4. The Human Relations Area Files (HRAF)  The world’s largest anthropological data bank.  Developed for the purpose of testing hypotheses and building theory.  Ethnographic data on over 300 cultures organized according to 700 different subjects.

5. What is Fieldwork? DEFINITION Fieldwork involves going to live in the group you want to study for a prolonged period of time KEY COMPONENTS 1. Fieldwork gives first-hand information about a group 2. Fieldwork usually lasts for a prolonged period of time, frequently at least one year so that seasonal differences can be studied 3. Fieldworkers use a wide variety of data collection methods to gather information about the culture in which they are living.

6. Basic Stages of Field Research 1. Selecting a research problem 2. Formulating a research design 3. Collecting the data 4. Analyzing the data 5. Interpreting the data 6. Reporting the results

7. Preparing for Fieldwork  Obtain funding from a source that supports anthropological research.  Take the proper health precautions.  Obtain permission or clearance from the host government.  Become proficient in the local language.  Make arrangements for personal possessions while out of the country.

8. Ethics and Anthropology Areas of responsibility for anthropologists:  The people under study  The local communities  The host governments and their own government  Other members of the scholarly community  Organizations that sponsor research  Their own students

9. Avoiding The Far Side  Cultural anthropologists often have an obstructive effect on the people they study.  They must be careful to disrupt cultural patterns and beliefs as little as possible.

10. Fieldwork Settings Traditional or Western cultures Rural or Urban Societies or Sub-cultures The study of everyday life in the state of Bahia in Brazil (above) presents different problems and challenges to the field anthropologist than does the study of village life in Namibia (below).

11. Common Issues in Fieldwork  Dealing with Culture Shock  Language difficulties  Gaining acceptance in the community.  Selecting the most appropriate data-gathering techniques.  Understanding how to operate within the local culture and political structure.  Taking precautions against investigator bias.  Choosing knowledgeable informants.  Be willing to reevaluate findings in the light of new evidence.

12. What Kinds of Methods Are Used in Fieldwork?  Observation  Language acquisition  Participant- Observation  Interviewing  Mapping  Photography and Videography  Geneology  Document analysis  Surveys  Census taking

13. Data Recording Methods  Field notes  Photo and video records  Computer spread sheets  Journaling

14. What is Observation? DEFINITION Collecting data about actions, contexts, props, roles and kinds of participation in both individual and social situations. KEY COMPONENTS 1. Observation is such an obvious way to collect information that we sometimes don’t note it as a research method 2. Observation is the only way of collecting information in a new cultural context when the researcher does not speak the language. 3. Observations are recorded in detailed field notes that record behaviors, contexts, props, roles and participants.

15. Why Language Acquisition? Learning the native language of the group is essential to the study of culture for several reasons:  Interviewing depends on being able to speak the native language.  Participation depends on being able to speak in social situations.  Words commonly do not translate exactly from one language to another.  Word are labels for cultural categories. In order to understand a culture, you must know something about the kinds of categories people use to organize the world.

16. What is Participant- Observation? DEFINITION Participating in the social events, rituals and daily activities of the group they are studying KEY COMPONENTS 1. Participation gives the researcher a visceral and emotional perspective on the activities of the group. 2. Participation is only possible in limited kinds of situations defined the gender, age and other qualifications of the researcher. 3. Participation gives the researcher roles to play in the group that allow him/her to be more accepted.

17. Guidelines for Participant- Observation Fieldwork  When introducing oneself, select one role and use it consistently.  Proceed slowly.  Assume the role of a student wanting to learn more about a subject on which the people are the experts.  Establish relationships with key informants of whom you can ask the “stupid” questions of an outsider

18. Participant Observation Anthropologist Mark Jenike weighs a duiker that was caught by a Lese hunter in Zaire, central Africa. Alan Rumsey listens to a warrior from Highland New Guinea while collecting linguistic anthropological data. Kim Martin with Oaxacan family of embroiderers.

19. Participant-Observation AdvantagesDisadvantages Focuses on the emic perspective Enables fieldworkers to distinguish actual from expected behavior. Permits observation of nonverbal behavior Allows the interaction of factors to be observed and documented Small sample size Difficult to obtain standardized comparable data Problems of recording Obtrusive effect on subject matter

20. What is Interviewing? DEFINITION Asking questions of insider members of the group you are studying. KEY COMPONENTS 1. The people interviewed are generally called “informants” 2. Interviewing allows the researcher to find out WHY things are done 3. Interviewing allows the researcher to find out what things MEAN. 4. Interviews can be structured, where the researcher asks for specific information. 5. Interviews can be unstructured, where the researcher encourages the speaker to talk about a certain topic, and does not ask specific questions.

21. What is Ethnographic Interviewing? DEFINITION An interviewing technique that uses content free questions to get an insiders view of cultural material. KEY COMPONENTS 1. The interviewer does not have to know anything but the word/label for the concept he/she wants to know more about. 2. The results are an “emic” or insiders view of the topic with minimal researcher bias. 3. Content-free (frame elicitation) questions are used as probes, e.g.: 4. Tell me about ____________. 5. Are there different kinds of ____?

22. What is Mapping? DEFINITION Drawing sketches and plans for things that are important to the culture USES FOR MAPPING  Maps can record geography and resource distribution  Maps can record ownership of resources or material possessions.  Maps can record social locations and activities.  Researchers can make their own maps or use existing ones to record data.

23. What are Photography and Videography? DEFINITION The use of photos, videos and/or film to record aspects of the culture USES FOR PHOTOGRAPHY AND VIDEOGRAPHY  Photographs can be used to communicate about things or events when language is not adequate  Photographs and video can record complex activities that cannot be completely recorded though observation or participant-observation.  Photographs and videos can record color, sound and emotional components not accessible through other methods

24. What is Geneology? DEFINITION The collection and recording of data about family structure and membership REASONS FOR DOING GENEOLOGY  Geneological data includes kinship by birth, marriage and fictive relationships  Geneological data provides a model for how family and social organization is structured  Geneological data provides information about priorities and values within a society

25. What is Document Analysis? DEFINITION The study of existing written documents that can provide information about a group DOCUMENT ANALYSIS EXAMPLES  Church records can provide geneological records from the past  Historic accounts provide comparative information about how culture change has occurred  Political records document the passage of authority and leadership over time.

26. What is Survey Research? DEFINITION The use of written questionnaires to collect information. ISSUES WITH SURVEYS  Surveys are the least useful method for anthropologists generally  Surveys presume that people can read  Surveys provide impersonal, statistical data that does not give details about the culture and how it works.  Surveys are usually used in a final phase of research where specific information is needed.

27. What is Ethnology? DEFINITION Ethnology is the process of comparing and contrasting a variety of cultures to identify general rules about how culture works. KEY COMPONENTS 1. Ethnology uses ethnographies as the basis of comparison 2. Ethnology studies multiple cultures at one time 3. Ethnology seeks to create hypotheses and theories to explain how culture works

28. Powerpoint Study Guide Ethnography Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) Fieldwork Participant Observation Geneology Census taking Ethnographic Interviewing Ethnology Document Analysis Mapping Journaling Fieldnotes Ethical Considerations