1. The Evolution of Dilution Andrew Paitsel Allen Patton

2. Co-evolutionary Arms Race Predator/Prey Survival Adaptions –Faster prey = faster predators –Better eyesight = better camoflauge Other Survival Adaptations -Warning calls -Mobbing behaviors -Traveling in herds (Dilution Effect)

3. Questions to Address What is the Dilution Effect? What are the advantages/disadvantages? What species has practiced this trait? What is the Selfish Herd theory? How does it affect the population? What other ways do animals behave due to predation?

4. Dilution Effect  the assumption that everyone has an equal chance of survival while in large groups due to the fact that no individual is being singled out by a predator.

5. Advantages  More eyes watching out for predators  Predator not being able to choose the easiest prey  Prey species spend more time foraging instead of scanning for predators

6. The frequency of scans as a result of relative danger Bednekoff et al, 1998.

7. Disadvantages More likely to be seen by predators More competition over resources More competition over mate selection

8. Examples

9. Stotting

10. Alarm signal hypothesis Social cohesion hypothesis Confusion effect hypothesis Pursuit deterrence hypothesis

12. Disadvantages of Stotting Time Cost Energy Cost Survivorship Cost

13. The Selfish Herd Competition for safer positioning within the herd. –Middle position has overall higher survival probability that individuals on the outer parts –Increasing your overall fitness at the expense of others

14. Future Research  Determine if traveling in herds is a learned or genetic trait  Look into how predators counteract the Dilution Effect  Is stotting a learned or inherited trait

15. Continue to evolve until someone gets the upper hand

16. References Alcock J. 2005. Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach. Sinauer Associates, Inc. 8:176-199 Bednekoff P.A., Lima S.L. 1998 Re-examining safety in numbers: interactions between risk dilution and collective detection depend upon predator targeting behaviour. The Royal Society. 265:2021- 2026 Caro T.M. 1986. The Functions of Stotting in Thomson’s Gazelles: some tests of the predictions. Animal Behaviour. 34(3):663-684 Caro T.M. 1985. Functions of Stotting. Animal Behaviour. 34(3):649- 661 Cresswell W., Jakobsson S., Kaby U., Lind J., Quinn J.L. 2003. Animal Behaviour. 66:643-648 Garay J. 2008 Cooperation in defence against a predator. Journal of Theoretical Biology 257:45-51

17. References Cont. Pictures http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/gazelle-body-language-1.jpg http://www.teameveresttravel.com/main/images/stories//InternationalVacations/gallery- africa/Day3/Herds_Maasai_Mara.jpghttp://www.teameveresttravel.com/main/images/stories//InternationalVa http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.travelphotos.in/thumbs/lrg-106- img_3500_cheetah_brothers.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.serengeti.in/index.php%3Fcat%3D102&us g=__-6gpONj-zFPa- tqP3oSTLkZk2s0=&h=459&w=400&sz=76&hl=en&start=28&tbnid=ltIijJbwd6BUDM:&tbnh=128&tb nw=112&prev=/images%3Fq%3DCheetah%2Bvs.%2Bherd%26gbv%3D2%26ndsp%3D18%26hl %3Den%26sa%3DN%26start%3D18 http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/upload/2006/06/zebra%25 20lion.jpeg&imgrefurl=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2006/06/bio101_lecture_7_physiology_co_1. php&usg=__4u3AfFA8W3wSxJwtO7X3est7kng=&h=323&w=448&sz=102&hl=en&start=2&tbnid= XCMpf2ZkAhcQLM:&tbnh=92&tbnw=127&prev=/images%3Fq%3DZebra%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3 Den http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://lh4.ggpht.com/_ntEIaR868hs/RpwQkCU_I0I/AAAA AAAAA3w/nN0Qbe1dr3o/Africa- 227.JPG&imgrefurl=http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/O9qg8k9BUkfv5fxiJgZY6g&usg=__qm MBImFnwIvSowsez5V1Ayeaaig=&h=1068&w=1600&sz=11&hl=en&start=3&tbnid=CbmEpymRX0 P63M:&tbnh=100&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3DWildabeest%2Bherd%26gbv%3D2%26hl% 3Den http://pro.corbis.com/images/CB012940.jpg?size=572&uid=%7B001FD655-525A-4DFD-8B6A- 8C548047F4D5%7D