1. Roles of ion state and plasma on evolution of planet and biosphere M. Yamauchi and J.-E. Wahlund Swedish Institute of Space Physics (IRF) Kiruna, Sweden M.Yamauchi@irf.se

2. Fact 1: unexpected high loss rate ~ 1 kg/s vH+nH+nO+nO2+vH+nH+nO+nO2+ Even higher flux is observed for the Earth (100~500 ton/day). Lundin et al., 1990

3. Fact 2: Magnetic field-dependent ion reaction

4. During the evolution of biosphere in the ancient Earth, Venus, and Mars, ionized state (weakly ionized plasma) could have played important roles on: (1) Determination of initial atmosphere and its evolution by the direct interaction between the ionosphere and solar wind. (2) Chirality formation by the asymmetric chemical reactions of ionized molecules in the ionosphere or under shallow water. (3) Atmospheric evolution by the non- thermal dynamics of ions Planetary formation  (  (1)) Formation of atmosphere (and water)  (  (2) ?) Formation (or arrival) of amino acid  (  (2) ?) Formation of RNA  (  (3)) Evolution of atmosphere (and biosphere) Importance of plasma: three possible episodes

5. Note : chirality formation (a) Choose the combination of L-type amino & D-type sugar (b) Choose "right-handed helicity" of RNA This is previously presented (1998, 2001)

6. Today's keyword : Ionosphere / ion circulation 1. Controls the solar wind interaction for the non- magnetized planet. 2. Chiral environment of the ionosphere (presented 2001). 3. Source and sink of escaping ions.  The evolution of the planetary atmosphere might be dependent on the ionospheric condition and its activity.  Add another aspect on the solar UV dependence and solar wind (P D =  v 2 and IMF*) dependence. *IMF = Interplanetary Magnetic Field (=B)

7. 1. Solar wind (SW) interaction with ionosphere shocked SW Magnetized planet  SW is stopped by the magnetic pressure of the dipole field Un-magnetized planet Magnetized SW  Interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) piles up around the ionosphere due to induction current Un-magnetized planet Un-magnetized SW present Earth, ancient Earth? Mars, Venus, ancient Earth? For reference

8. Weakly or un-magnetized planet (Mars, Venus, ancient Earth?) Four loss mechainsms: (1) Collisional interaction by the solar wind: small for our Sun (2) Thomson scattering by solar UV raduation: small for our Sun (3) Thermal escape: small for the Earth, Mars, and Venus (4) EM interaction (non-thermal): large Ion Pickup process: believed to be the largest contribution for non- magnetized planet. Newly ionized atoms inside the solar wind EM field (i.e., beyond the boundary) start making a cycloid trajectory and escape.

9. Ion pickup loss vs. planetary corona (1) If Extent of ionosphere > Extent of neutral atmosphere (strong UV?)  Narrow magnetic piled up region above the ionosphere  Balance between SW P D (  piled up magnetic field)  P ionosphere (a) stronger (stable) IMF  same amount of the magnetic pile up (b) more variable IMF  more internal process (non-thermal escape) (c) stronger SW P D  lower balance altitude  more neutral beyond boundary  more ion pickup (2) If Extent of ionosphere < Extent of neutral atmosphere (weak UV ?)  Thick (spread) magnetic pile-up region above the ionosphere  Balance between SW P D  P exosphere  Neutrals are quickly blown off (by ion pickup)  all existing models

10. Magnetized planet (Earth, Mercury) Magnetopause : balance between SW P D  Planetary magnetic field (a) stronger but stable IMF  lower altitude of magnetopause but more return flow (b) more variable IMF  more internal process (non-thermal escape) (c) stronger SW P D  lower altitude of magnetopause + escape How about UV dependence ? (important for ancient condition)

11. Height and density of the ionosphere (1) Ionization (source) = Chapman model One-component atmosphere (scale height = H  1/gravity)  : cross section, F 0 :incoming solar flux, n 0 :density at z=0 Peak altitude : z max ( , F 0, H) = H ln(n 0  H/cos(  ))  does not depends on F 0, but on H (i.e., gravity) Peak production : q max ( , F 0, H) = F 0 cos(  )/H exp(1)  depends on F 0 and H (i.e., gravity) (2) Transport (recombination loss is ignorable) Moves peak of n e (z) much higher with less sharp n e (z) profile Transport (convection) is mainly driven by heating (  q)  Ionospheric extent depends on both F 0 and gravity

12. Ionosphere (cont.) After http://ion.le.ac.uk/ionosphere/profile.html Ionization (model): peak at < 150 km Ion density (observation): peak at 300~400 km  (1) Transport is important (2) Solar flux is important

13. UV depedence Stronger UV  higher, hotter, denser ionosphere (1) For magnetized planet  but same magnetopause location  more neutral beyond the magnetopause & more upflowing ions (particlarly inside cusp)  more escape (2) For un-magnetized planet  higher magnetic pileup location but higher neutral corona extent  As total, most likely less neutral beyond the boundary  less escape? In fact, more escape of cold ions from Titan than from Venus

14. Ancient Earth's ionosphere: many possibilities * Magnetized or non-magnetized * High UV period or low UV period * Strong/active or weak/quiet IMF * Strong or weak SW pressure * Upper atmospheric neutral temperature (i.e., composition) Most likely more escape (for selective ions) for stronger SW dynamic pressure more variable IMF higher neutral temperature and for stronger UV (magnetized planet) weaker UV (un-magnetized planet) What can we learn from present ?

15. Mars : quick energization of O + is confirmed Lundin et al., 2004

16. Magnetized Earth: O + is escaping Non-thermal O + (> 10 eV = 10 km/s = escape velocity) are frequently found above the Earth's ionosphere. (Nilsson et al., 2004) H+ O+

17. Dynamics of ionospheric origin ions (obs.) ! (1) Pickup process: Induction current of the ionosphere piles up the IMF for both Mars and Venus. Ion pickup loss takes place beyond this boundary. (2) Non-pickup process: Non-thermal ion escape is substantial for both Earth and Mars. Non-thermal ion circulation cannot be ignored in the planetary evolution time scale (although the pickup loss is probably the largest contribution for non-magnetized planet). Note : non-thermal escape/return/circulation route/mechanism is far more complicated than simple thought.

18. Distribution of ion heating at h = 1700km (Broad-Band Electrostatic Low Frequency wave) (Lower Hybrid or Electro-Magnetic Ion Cyclotron wave) (1) Escapes are in various forms (2) dependent strongly on SW/magnetospheric condition Freja statistics Norqvist et al., 1998

19. Earth : Many different non-thermal O+ escapes Arverius et al., 2006 (1) Additional mechanism at high altitude (2) Dependent on SW condition in various ways

20. O+ injection : it returns (we don't know the amount) Yamauchi et al., 2005

21. Budget above the Earth's ionosphere ion escapeH+H+ O+O+ < 10 eV (2~3 Re)2~51~3 > 10 eV (3~4 Re)2~81.5~20 ion precipitationionelectron > 10 eV (DMSP)0.2~0.99~60 in 10 25 /s mass budgetH+H+ O+O+ meteors out0.05~0.20.5~5- in< 0.02?0.5 in kg/s After Moore et al., 1999

22. H+/O+ in major return route correlated & anti-correlated

23. Summary on the ion circulation 1. There are more mechanism of ion escape/return from/to the ionosphere than a simple thought. Even now, we have many un- understood ion escape/return mechanisms. 2. Role of the ionosphere is not limited to the source/sink of circulation, but to determine the boundary beyond which the atmosphere is lost. 3. For both cases, the ionospheric effect on the atmospheric escape is a complicated function of solar flux, SW, and IMF for both magnetized and un-magnetized planet. Thus, the ionized state (weakly ionized plasma) could have played important roles during the evolution of biosphere in the ancient Earth, Venus, and Mars. We need both static and dynamic conditions of ancient Earth for proper modeling of atmospheric condition.

24. Chirality : mirror asymmetry Neutral : linear Ionized : chiral

25. Possible causes of chirality 1. By chance + competition/auto-catalysis? 2. Chiral forces + competition/auto-catalysis? 2b. Weak Boson interaction force W-interaction force / Z-interaction force (a) 2b. Polarized Electromagnetic (EM) radiation gamma ray (a) / UV-IR light (b) / radio wave (c, d) 3. Achiral forces + competition/auto-catalysis? 3a. Radiation or Discharge in anisotropic environment in magnetic field (a-d) in electric/gravity field (a-d) in plasma (a-d, f) 3b. Chiral reaction environment with Lorentz force  + electrostatic force (c, e-i) + magnetostatic force (e, h-i) + non-EM forces, e.g., g,  P, centrifugal, etc. (f-i) (a) cosmic ray (b) solar radiation (c) lightning (d) from ionosphere (e) catalytic/polarized layer or boundary (f) partially ionized fluid (g) laminar convection (h) shock propagation (i) strong gradient of ionized solution

26. 3b. Chiral reaction environment Particle-1: at least 2 axes of attitude fixed. Particle-2 or boundary: approach from one side (along 3rd axis direction of particle-1). 3rd axis COOH C NH2

27. Weakly ionized plasma = Chiral environment! To make the ion motion direction stay relatively fixed while electron obey Lorenz force, we need frequent collisions with neutral.  A weakly ionized state (ionosphere!) is favourable. m i u i = [ i F i + F i  Ω i ] / [ i 2 + Ω i 2 ] where F i = q i E + m i g Ω i = q i B/m i If i >> Ω i u i = F i /m i i + F i  Ω i /m i i 2  Almost all particles move in the F = qE + mg direction, whereas the attitude is controlled by E and B directions if the molecule has both the electric and magnetic dipole moments.

28. Summary on the Chirality Role of the ionosphere and ionized state is not limited to above, but it could have played a role in making chiral reaction.

29. Low temperature = higher chance of chirality The degree of fixing of a "free" n-particle system by the static magnetic field against the ordinary thermal motion: ∆  ≈ (µ B ·E/kT)·nµ B ·E + (µ E ·E/kT) · nµ E ·E ∆  : total energy shift due to the external magnetic field µ B : magnetic moment of the molecule µ E : electric dipole moment of the molecule e.g., electron in the geomagnetic field (B=10 -4 T) at room temperature (kT = 0.02 eV).  µ B ·B/kT ≈ 10 -6 /molecule « 1  ∆  ≈ 10 -14 eV/molecule : comparable to weak interaction force In reality, we havd other fixing factors e.g., boundaries and laminar catalyst.

30. Low-temperature chemistry : example

31. Not only ionosphere, but also…. Mars : finding the signature of ancient Martian life should be highest inside the region of the magnetic stripe. Interstellar cloud : B (magnetic field) is weak and density is low although T (temperature) is very low. Hence the assistance of polarized radiation has been favoured. Otherwise, we only need the i >> Ω i condition for the chiral environment. Note that the low density favours the partial ionization. The external force (e.g., gravity) can be temporally enhanced when the cloud floats by a star. Comet in magnetized solar wind : A similar argument is possible because it is not difficult to find a region of i >> Ω i near the comet surface. Accidental planetary flybys provide extra gravitational force. Finally, near the underwater volcano :

32. Ancient planet (Earth, Venus, Mars) a wild guess for the magnetized case

33. Chiral underwater reaction near volcano

34. Force-free (lowest energy) configuration

35. Duct structure by whistler wave

36. Critical ionization velocity (CIV) phenomenon

37. Chiral reaction in weakly-ionized plasma

39. Escape from the cusp Earth ? Mars ? Venus ? Io & other Satellites?

40. O+ source ≠ H+ source H+ O+ H+ O+ H+ O+

41. O+ injection (Freja statistics) Distribution of heavy ion injection events at 0.1-10 keV range. One can recognize nightside preference.

42. More than two types of O+ escape ~ 1 kg/s loss means complete loss in 200 M year without refill