1. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Chapter 5 Lecture Slides

2. 5.1 The Flow of Energy in Living Cells Energy is the ability to do work Energy is considered to exist in two states  kinetic energy the energy of motion  potential energy stored energy that can be used for motion All the work carried out by living organisms involves the transformation of potential energy to kinetic energy

3. Figure 5.1 Potential and kinetic energy

4. 5.1 The Flow of Energy in Living Things There are many forms of energy but all of them can be converted to heat Heat energy is the most convenient form of energy to measure Thermodynamics is the study of energy or heat changes

5. 5.1 The Flow of Energy in Living Things Energy from the sun is captured by some organisms and used to make molecules  these molecules then contain potential energy due to the arrangement of their atoms  the potential energy in molecules is a form of chemical energy that can be used to do work in cells  chemical reactions involve making and breaking bonds between atoms

6. 5.2 The Laws of Thermodynamics Laws of thermodynamics govern the energy changes of the universe, including those involved with any activity of an organism 1 st Law of Thermodynamics  the total amount of energy in the universe remains constant  energy can change from one state to another but it can never be created nor destroyed  during the energy conversions, some of the energy is lost as heat energy 2 nd Law of Thermodynamics  the amount of disorder, or entropy, in the universe is increasing

7. Figure 5.3 Entropy in action

8. 5.3 Chemical Reactions The starting molecules of a chemical reaction are called the reactants or, sometimes substrates The molecules at the end of the reaction are called products There are two kinds of chemical reactions  endergonic reactions have products with more energy than the reactants these reactions require an input of energy  exergonic reactions have products with less energy than the reactants these reactions tend to occur spontaneously

9. 5.3 Chemical Reactions All chemical reactions require an initial input of energy called activation energy  the activation energy initiates a chemical reaction by destabilizing existing chemical bonds Reactions become more likely to happen if their activation energy is lowered  this process is called catalysis  catalyzed reactions proceed much faster than non- catalyzed reactions

10. Figure 5.4 Chemical reactions and catalysis

11. 5.4 How Enzymes Work Enzymes are the catalysts used by cells to perform particular reactions  enzymes bind specifically to a molecule and stress the bonds to make the reaction more likely to proceed  the active site is the site on the enzyme that binds to a reactant  the site on the reactant where the enzyme binds is called the binding site

12. 5.4 How Enzymes Work The binding of a reactant to an enzyme causes the enzyme’s shape to change slightly  this leads to an “induced fit” where the enzyme and substrate fit tightly together as a complex  the enzyme lowers the activation energy for the reaction  the enzyme is unaffected by the chemical reaction and be re-used

13. Figure 5.5 An enzyme’s shape determines its activity

14. Essential Biological Process 5A: How Enzymes Work

15. Animation: How Enzymes Work Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.

16. Animation: Enzyme Action and the Hydrolysis of Sucrose Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.

17. 5.4 How Enzymes Work Catalyzed reactions may occur together in sequence  the product of one reaction is the substrate for the next reaction until a final product is made  the series of reactions is called a biochemical pathway Figure 5.6 A biochemical pathway

18. Animation: A Biochemical Pathway Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.

19. Animation: Feedback Inhibition of Biochemical Pathways Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.

20. 5.4 How Enzymes Work Temperature and pH affect enzyme activity  enzymes function within an optimum temperature range when temperature increases, the shape of the enzyme changes due to denaturing of the protein chains  enzymes function within an optimal pH range the shape of enzymes is also affected by pH most human enzymes work best within a pH range of 6 - 8 –exceptions are stomach enzymes that function in acidic ranges

21. Figure 5.7 Enzymes are sensitive to their environment

22. 5.5 How Cells Regulate Enzymes Cells can control enzymes by altering their shape  allosteric enzymes are affected by the binding of signal molecules some signals act as repressors –inhibit the enzyme when bound other signals act as activators –change the shape of the enzyme so that it can bind substrate

23. Essential Biological Process 5B: Regulating Enzyme Activity

24. 5.5 How Cells Regulate Enzymes Feedback inhibition is a form of enzyme inhibition where the product of a reaction acts as a repressor  competitive inhibition the inhibitor competes with the substrate for the active site the inhibitor can block the active site so that it cannot bind the substrate  non-competitive inhibition the inhibitor binds to the allosteric site and changes the shape of the active site so that no substrate can bind

25. Figure 5.8 How enzymes can be inhibited

26. Animation: B Vitamins Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.

27. 5.6 ATP: The Energy Currency of the Cell The energy from the sun or from food sources must be converted to a form that cells can use  adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy currency of the cell

28. 5.6 ATP: The Energy Currency of the Cell The structure of ATP suits it as an energy carrier  each ATP molecule has three parts 1.a sugar 2.an adenine nucleotide 3.a chain of three phosphate groups  the phosphates are negatively charged and it takes a lot of chemical energy to hold them together  the phosphates are poised to come apart

29. Figure 5.9 The parts of an ATP molecule

30. 5.6 ATP: The Energy Currency of the Cell When the endmost phosphate group is broken off an ATP molecule, energy is released The P i represents inorganic phosphate ATP  ADP + P i + energy

31. 5.6 ATP: The Energy Currency of the Cell Coupled reactions  usually endergonic reactions are coupled with the breakdown of ATP more energy than is needed is released by the breakdown of ATP so heat is given off ATP cycles in the cell with respect to its energy needs Figure 5.10 The ATP-ADP Cycle

32. 5.6 ATP: The Energy Currency of the Cell ATP powers many key cell activities Cells use two processes to convert energy from the sun and from food molecules into ATP  photosynthesis some cells convert energy from the sun into ATP and then use it to make sugars that store potential energy  cellular respiration cells break down the potential energy in sugars and convert it ATP

33. Inquiry & Analysis As S increases, does V increase? Is there a maximum reaction rate? Does this result provide support for the hypothesis that an enzyme binds physically to its substrate? Do Enzymes Physically Attach to Their Substrates?