1. Chapter 12: Political Parties by Richard S. Katz
Caramani (ed.) Comparative Politics
Section IV: Actors and processes
Chapter 12: Political Parties by Richard S. Katz

2. Chapter 12: Political parties Introduction (1/1)
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Introduction (1/1)
Political parties are among the central actors in politics.
Parties are ubiquitous in modern political systems. Governments of most
countries are effectively in the hands of party-leaders.
It is unlikely that social movements or governance networks will replace
parties.

3. Chapter 12: Political parties Definition of parties (1/1)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Definition of parties (1/1)
Since parties are very different in their motivation, organization, behaviour
and relevance, it is hardly possible to find an all encompassing definition of
parties.
Nevertheless, the definition of party is significant, both scientifically and
normatively.
Most examples of party-definitions combine the following elements:
Objective of parties
Methods of parties
Their role in political competition
Autonomous citizens
The term “party” is better considered as a category than as an ideal type.

4. Chapter 12: Political parties Origins of parties (1/2)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Origins of parties (1/2)
Not the existence of factions, but their acceptance was the origin of
parties (disagreement instead of disloyalty; organization instead of
conspiracy).
Earlier parties were parties of intraparliamentary origin:
Success in gaining control over the executive
Rise of parliamentary government
Parties of extra-parliamentary origin:
Founded to organize those excluded from political participation
Succeeded in inducing the established parties to broaden suffrage

5. Chapter 12: Political parties Origins of parties (2/2)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Origins of parties (2/2)
Parties of internal and external origin differ with respect to their:
Timing
Organization
Social basis
In the late 20th century a new type of externally originating party appeared:
Hierarchical party organization, depending on material resources
of its leader
Conservative or pro-business
Example: Berlusconi’s Forza Italia

6. Chapter 12: Political parties The functions of parties (1/2)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
The functions of parties (1/2)
Political parties perform a number of functions that are central to the
operation of modern states:
Coordination:
With government
With society
Between government and society
Contesting elections:
Providing candidates
Fund raising for candidates
Formulating policy positions

7. Chapter 12: Political parties The functions of parties (2/2)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
The functions of parties (2/2)
(3) Recruitment and selection:
Integrating new citizens (e.g. party youth movements)
Representation:
Social groupings
Ideological positions

8. Chapter 12: Political parties Models of party organization (1/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (1/9)
Types of parties:
Cadre or elite parties:
The earliest of “modern” parties (parliamentary origin)
No need for a party on the ground due to highly restricted
suffrage
Mobilizing of personal clientele

9. Chapter 12: Political parties Models of party organization (2/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (2/9)
Types of parties (continued)
(2) Mass parties:
2nd half of 19th century (extra-parliamentary origin)
Representing a particular group or social class
Often built on pre-existing organizations (e.g. trade-unions)
Strategy of “encapsulation by providing a range of ancillary organizations”
Extensive organization, dominated by the party’s elite (“iron law of oligarchy”)

10. Chapter 12: Political parties Models of party organization (3/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (3/9)
Types of parties (continued)
(3) Catch-all parties:
Developed from transformation of mass parties, characterized by:
Increasing role of professionals (compared to members)
Weaker ideological orientation
Strategy to appeal across group boundaries
Loosening connection between party and “its” interest organization

11. Chapter 12: Political parties Models of party organization (4/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (4/9)
Types of parties (continued)
Cartel parties:
Pressure on the catch-all model led to four major changes compared to catch-all parties:
Agencies of the state rather than of society
Disempowering party activists
Further privileging professional expertise
Parties form a cartel to protect themselves from electoral risk and
to get subventions from the state

12. Chapter 12: Political parties Models of party organization (5/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (5/9)
Types of parties (continued)
(5) Anti-cartel parties:
Frustration with mainstream parties
Organized around an idea rather than a social grouping
left-libertarian-, new right- or movement parties
(6) Business-firm parties:
Forza Italia as model for parties in the future?
(7) Parties in the US:
Share many features of cadre parties
But candidate selection is run by state regulated primary elections

13. Chapter 12: Political parties Models of party organization (6/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (6/9)
Membership:
All modern parties claim to have membership organizations.
Individual or affiliated membership (trade-unions).
Measures of membership:
Number of members
Ratio of party membership to size of electorate
Organizational density (ratio of members to voters)
Regardless of how party membership is measured, it has
been declining.

14. Chapter 12: Political parties Models of party organization (7/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (7/9)
Regulation:
Increasing number of countries enacts special “party laws” due to:
The centrality of parties to democracy
The power of parties
Administrative necessities
A party becomes official through registration. Registration often brings a
bundle of privileges:
Contributions are deductible from taxes
Ballot access
Public subventions

15. Chapter 12: Political parties Models of party organization (8/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (8/9)
Finance:
Regulation of spending
Bans on particular forms of spending (e.g. vote buying)
Limitation of total spending
Disclosure of spending
Regulations of fundraising
Limits on individual contributions
Prohibition of financing from some sources (e.g. foreigners, corporations, trade-unions, etc.)

16. Chapter 12: Political parties Models of party organization (9/9)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Models of party organization (9/9)
Finance (continued)
Public subventions:
A growing number of countries provide support for parties through:
Tax system (e.g. deductible contributions)
Provisions of goods and services (e.g. free air time)
Direct financial support (often based on voting shares)
Public support for parties is not uncontested:
Do financial contributions really help parties to perform their
functions better?
Promoting equality and fairness?

17. Parties and the stabilization of democracy (1/1)
Chapter 12: Political parties
Parties and the stabilization
of democracy (1/1)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Parties play an important role in stabilizing democracy by integrating new
citizens (immigration, age, suffrage extension) into the existing political
system.
But their stabilizing effect is not observable everywhere (e.g. formerly
communist countries, Islamic world).
Whether the electoral success of anti-democratic parties helps to moderate
them, or undermines democracy is an open question.
Are internally oligarchic parties an asset for state-level democracy?
(dilemma for democracy promoting agencies)

18. Chapter 12: Political parties Conclusion (1/1)
Introduction
Definition of parties
Origins of parties
The functions of parties
Models of party organization
Parties and the stabilization of democracy
Conclusion
Chapter 12: Political parties
Conclusion (1/1)
Political parties remain central to democratic government in the 21st
century.
Nevertheless, parties face a number of challenges:
Increasing complexity of problems makes them less tractable
Declining party membership
More dependent from contributions of special interest groups and from public subventions
Increasing role of competing interest organizations