1. Career Counseling: A Holistic Approach
Theories of Career Development
Part III

2. Developmental Theories
Primary assumption is that career development is a process that takes place over the life span.

3. Developmental Theories
The Life-Span, Life-Space Approach to Careers
Donald Super (1972)
Career development was viewed as a continuous process.
Self-concept theory is a vital part of Super’s approach to vocational behavior.

4. Developmental Theories Super’s Self-Concept
Research has indicated that the vocational self-concept develops through:
physical and mental growth
observations of work
identification with working adults
general environment
and general experiences.

5. Developmental Theories Super’s Self-Concept
Although the vocational self-concept is only part of the total self-concept, it is the driving force that establishes a career pattern one will follow throughout life.
Thus, individuals implement their self-concepts into careers that will provide the most efficient means of self-expression.

6. Developmental Theories Super’s Self-Concept
Self-concept developmental process is multidimensional.
Clients have a better chance of making optimal decisions when they are most aware of the work world and themselves.

7. Super’s Vocational Stages
Another of Super’s important contributions has been his formalization of vocational developmental stages:
Growth (birth to age 14 or 15)
Exploratory (ages 15-24)
Establishment (ages 25-44)
Maintenance (ages 45-64)
Decline (ages 65+)
Five developmental tasks are delineated by typical age ranges, but tasks can occur at other age levels.

9. Super’s Developmental Stages
Super (1990) modified the developmental tasks through the life span as shown on next slide and uses the terms cycling and recycling.

11. Super – Career Maturity
One of Super’s best-known studies, launched in 1951, followed the vocational development of ninth-grade boys in Middletown, NY (Super & Overstreet, 1960).
The career maturity concepts developed by Super have far-reaching implications for career education and career counseling programs.

12. Implications of Super’s Approach
The critical phases of career maturity development provide points of reference.
The delineation of desired attitudes and competencies affords the specification of objectives for instructional and counseling projects.

13. Implications of Super’s Approach
Super (1974) identified six dimensions that he thought were relevant and appropriate for adolescents:
Orientation to vocational choice
Information and planning
Consistency of vocational preferences
Crystallization of traits
Vocational independence
Wisdom of vocational preferences

14. Implications of Super’s Approach
Example of how this information can be used.
The dimensions of career maturity support the concept that education and counseling can provide the stimulus for career development.
Super’s is most comprehensive of all developmental theories.

15. Implications of Super’s Approach
Two major tenets of his theory give credence to developmental theories in general.
Career development is a lifelong process occurring through defined developmental periods.
The self-concept is being shaped as each phase of life exerts its influence on human behavior.
Super (1990) illustrated a life-stage model by using a “life rainbow” as shown in Figure 2-4.

16. The life-career rainbow: Six life roles in schematic life space

17. Implications of Super’s Approach
This model leads to some interesting observations:
Success in one role facilitates success in another.
All roles affect one another in the various theaters.

18. Super’s Archway Model
Super also created an “archway model” to delineate the changing diversity of life roles experienced by individuals over the life span.

19. A segmental model
of career development

20. Super’s Archway Model
The relationship of the model’s segments highlights the interaction of influences in the career development process.
In a publication after Super’s death in 1994, his theory was labeled “the life-span life-space approach to careers.”
In this broad-based approach, gender and cultural differences are also addressed.

21. Super - Practical Applications
Super and his colleagues developed numerous assessment instruments designed to measure developmental tasks over the life span.
Career Development Assessment and Counseling model (C-DAC) was developed to measure constructs from the life-span, life-space theory in four phases.
Focus on client’s life structure and work-role salience.
Measure client’s perception of the work role, referred to as the client’s career stage, and career concerns.
Measures of abilities, interests, and values.
Assessment of self-concepts and life themes.

22. Super - Practical Applications
After assessment, counselor interprets data to client.
Counselor assists client to develop accurate picture of her/his self and life roles.
Counseling procedures pertinent to career development tasks are recommended.
Counseling may use coaching, educating, mentoring, modifying, or restructuring during an interview.

23. Developmental Theories – Gottfredson
Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations

24. Developmental Theories – Gottfredson
The main theme of Gottfredson’s (1981) theory is the development of occupational aspirations.
Her theory describes how people become attracted to certain occupations.

25. Developmental Theories – Gottfredson
Self-concept in vocational development is a key factor to career selection because people want jobs that are compatible with their self-images.
Key determinants of self-concept development are one’s social class, level of intelligence, and experiences with sex-typing.

26. Developmental Theories – Gottfredson
According to Gottfredson, individual development progresses through four stages:
1. Orientation to size and power (ages 3-5)
2. Orientation to sex roles (ages 6-8)
3. Orientation to social valuation (ages 9-13)
4. Orientation to the internal, unique self (beginning at age 14)

27. Developmental Theories – Gottfredson
A major determinant of occupational preferences is the progressive circumscription of aspirations during self-concept development.
Gottfredson suggested that socioeconomic background and intellectual level greatly influence individuals’ self-concept in the dominant society.
As people project into the work world, they choose occupations that are appropriate to their “social space,” intellectual level, and sex-typing.

28. Developmental Theories – Gottfredson
Gottfredson suggested that people compromise their occupational choices because of accessibility or even give up vocational interests to take a job that has an appropriate level of prestige and sex-type.
This theory has a strong sociological perspective.
Gottfredson is concerned with the external barriers that limit individual goals and opportunities.
The theory’s premise is that career choice is a process of eliminating options, thus narrowing one’s choices.

29. Developmental Theories – Gottfredson
Major Concepts of Gottfredson’s Theory
Self-Concept
Images of Occupations
Cognitive Maps of Occupations
Social Space
Circumscription
Compromise

30. Gottfredson
The scope of the theory was expanded greatly in Gottfredson (2002).
She stressed that career development is to be viewed as a nature-nurture partnership.
Genetically distinct individuals create different environments, and each individual’s genetic uniqueness shapes their experiences.

31. Gottfredson
This position differs from socialization theory (which suggests we are passive learners from our environmental experiences) and supports the view that we are active participants in creating self-directed experiences.
Both genes and environment contribute to one’s unique development.

32. Gottfredson
The nature-nurture partnership approach therefore adheres to an inner compass from which one may circumscribe and compromise life choices.
Gottfredson’s theory is distinguished from others by her emphasis on inherited genetic propensities that shape individual traits.

33. Gottfredson
The implications for career counseling include a perspective on individual differences that focuses on the influence of genetic individuality.
Most important to recognize the interplay of genetic and environmental factors.

34. Gottfredson
Individuals and their environments are involved in a continuous state of dynamic interaction.
Counselors are to respect the individuality of all clients and make no assumptions about a client’s vocational interests, attitudes, and abilities.
Counselors should encourage clients to be as realistic as possible.

35. Gottfredson – Practical Applications
She recommends five developmental criteria to aid the counselee in dealing with reality.
The counselee is able to name one or more occupational alternatives.
The counselee’s interests and abilities are adequate for occupations chosen.
The counselee is satisfied with the alternatives s/he has identified.
The counselee has not unnecessarily restricted her/his alternatives.
The counselee is aware of opportunities and is realistic about obstacles for implementing the chosen occupation.

36. Gottfredson – Practical Applications
She adds a biosocial perspective to the career development of the very young.
She strongly suggests that more attention be given to the development of individuals in their young years.

37. Gottfredson – Practical Applications
Of her key concepts, circumscription and compromise are the most dynamic.
Her theory has been criticized because it is limited to children and leaves much to be said about adult development.

38. Development Theories - Summary
Concept of vocational maturity illuminates the proposition that some clients simply are not prepared to make an optimal career decision.
Counselors are to assess a client’s orientation to work, planning skills, and reality of occupational preferences to determine readiness for career choice.
There are developmental tasks and stages in career development that provide windows of opportunity for counseling interventions.

39. Development Theories - Summary
Self-concept is the driving force that establishes a career pattern.
The assumption that clients are involved in several life roles simultaneously, and success in one life role facilitates success in another, underscores the important perspective of life-span development.

40. Development Theories - Summary
Gottfredson’s research underscores a well-known position that career educations should begin with the very young.
Counselors need to make every effort to empower children to learn more about he work world and promote the proposition that each child should feel free to choose any career.

41. Development Theories - Summary
Each client’s unique development should be the focus of the intake interview.
Developmental theories point out that each individuals development is unique, multifaceted, and multidimensional.
Counselors must recognize that client concerns can emerge from internal and external factors or a combination of both.