1. Map from Holt et al. (2013) Science Terrestrial Zoogeographic Regions Published as “an update of Wallace’s zoogeographic regions” Biogeography

2. Diversity Gradients Birds Map from Hawkins et al. (2006) J. Biogeogr.

3. Map from Willig et al. (2003) Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. Biogeography Diversity Gradients Mammals

4. Image from staffwww.fullcoll.edu Biogeography Diversity Gradients – Vascular Plants

5. The study of variation in species composition & diversity among geographic locations Biogeography Painting (1843) of Alexander von Humboldt & plate from his Geography of Plants (1805) from Wikimedia Commons

6. Local community A Regional community Global community Drift, Selection, Speciation Drift Selection Speciation Dispersal Local community B Drift Selection Speciation Redrawn from Vellend & Orrock (2010) Dispersal Community Assembly Drift, Selection, Speciation

7. Global diversity Hierarchy of Scales of Diversity Regional-scale diversity or Regional species pool or Gamma diversity (  ) Community B Local- scale diversity or Alpha diversity (  ) Community A Local- scale diversity or Alpha diversity (  ) *Beta diversity (  ) *Beta diversity reflects species turnover Original concept from Whittaker (1975)

8. Indirect Assessment of Local vs. Regional Influences Cain, Bowman & Hacker (2014), Fig. 18.6 1 to 1 Proportionate increase; regional processes dominate over local processes Saturation; local processes limit local richness

9. West Gulf Coastal Plain East Gulf Coastal Plain Atlantic Coastal Plain Subtropical Coastal Plain Longleaf pine transition woodlands Longleaf pine bluestem savannas Longleaf pine wiregrass savannas South Florida slash pine savannas Longleaf-slash pine wiregrass savannas From Jean Huffman, after Platt (1999) Appalachian Plateau Valley and Ridge Piedmont Plateau Blue Ridge Found nowhere else 1630 endemic plant species on Southeastern Coastal Plain (Sorrie & Weakley 2001 Castanea) Endemism E.g., parrot pitcher plant

10. Continental Drift Cain, Bowman & Hacker (2014), Fig. 18.11; concept generally attributed to Alfred Wegener (1912)

11. The mechanism for continental drift Plate Tectonics Cain, Bowman & Hacker (2014), Fig. 18.10 Main types of boundaries between plates: Mid-ocean ridge Subduction zone Fault

12. Dispersal spread these organisms across Gondwana ~150 mya, but vicariance separated their fossils across continents Vicariance = continuous geographic range rendered discontinuous by the emergence of a barrier Dispersal vs. Vicariance Map from Wikimedia Commons

13. Molecular phylogenetic evidence suggests that the ratite common ancestor roamed across Gondwana, but populations diverged as continents separated (i.e., vicariance) However, kiwis appear to have originated in Australia, then dispersed to New Zealand Dispersal vs. Vicariance Cain, Bowman & Hacker (2014), Fig. 18.12

14. Cain, Bowman & Hacker (2014), Fig. 18.15 Area, Isolation, Evolutionary History (e.g., Time, Stability) & Productivity Explanations for Origins of Regional Diversity Gradients Diversification rate = (Speciation rate) – (Extinction rate) Cradle effect = Higher speciation rate Museum effect = Lower extinction rate

15. Cain, Bowman & Hacker (2014), Fig. 18.16 Area, Isolation, Evolutionary History (e.g., Time, Stability) & Productivity Explanations for Origins of Regional Diversity Gradients

16. Cain, Bowman & Hacker (2014), Fig. 18.15 Area, Isolation, Evolutionary History (e.g., Time, Stability) & Productivity Explanations for Origins of Regional Diversity Gradients

17. Map from http://www.iceagenow.com/Ice-Age_Maps.htm Area, Isolation, Evolutionary History (e.g., Time, Stability) & Productivity Explanations for Origins of Regional Diversity Gradients

18. Cain, Bowman & Hacker (2014), Fig. 18.15 Area, Isolation, Evolutionary History (e.g., Time, Stability) & Productivity Explanations for Origins of Regional Diversity Gradients

19. Species-area curves from Rosenzweig (1995) Species-Area Relationship

20. Figure from Hubbell (2001, pg. 158) Species-Area Relationship Slope changes across scales

21. Data for Bismark Archipelago birds from Diamond (1972) PNAS Species-Isolation Relationship

22. The influence of area & isolation on local species richness Island Biogeography Theory Cain, Bowman & Hacker (2014), Fig. 18.16; MacArthur & Wilson (1967) The Theory of Island Biogeography